Physical Geology: Earth Revealed, 9th Edition - PDF Free Download (2025)

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Generalized Geologic and Tectonic Map of North America SEDIMENTARY UNITS

SPECIAL UNITS

Thick deposits in structurally negative areas

Paleozoic and Mesozoic active margin deposits

Synorogenic and postorogenic deposits

Paleozoic and Mesozoic passive margin deposits

Former subduction complex rocks of the Pacific border

Exposed parts of Ouachita foldbelt

Probable western extension of Innuitian foldbelt In cores of northern Alaska ranges

Late Precambrian deposits

Basement igneous and metamorphic complexes mainly of Precambrian age

Grenville foldbelt Deformed 880–1,000 m.y. ago

PLATFORM AREAS

Of Middle and Upper Proterozoic ages

Hudsonian foldbelts Deformed 1,640–1,820 m.y. ago

VOLCANIC AND PLUTONIC UNITS

Ice cap of Quaternary age On Precambrian and Paleozoic basement

Postorogenic volcanic cover

PRECAMBRIAN

Platform deposits on Precambrian basement In central craton

Ultramafic rocks

Kenoran foldbelts Deformed 2,390–2,600 m.y. ago

Platform deposits on Paleozoic basement

Platform deposits within the Precambrian

In Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains

Mainly in the Canadian Shield

Granitic plutons Ages are generally within the span of the tectonic cycle of the foldbelt in which they lie

Anorthosite bodies Plutons composed almost entirely of plagioclase

STRUCTURAL SYMBOLS Normal fault

Subsea fault

Hachures on downthrown side

Salt domes and salt diapirs Strike-slip fault Arrows show relative lateral movement

In Gulf coastal plain and Gulf of Mexico

Volcano Thrust fault Barbs on upthrown side

World’s oldest rock 1000 0 +1000

Contours on basement surfaces beneath platform areas Axes of seafloor spreading

All contours are below sea level except where marked with plus symbols. Interval is 1,000 meters

Modified from the Generalized Tectonic Map of North America by P.B. King and Gertrude J. Edmonston, U.S. Geological Survey Map I-688

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Granite

Metamorphic basement rock

Shale

Conglomerate

Basalt

Limestone

Sandstone

Breccia

Crystalline continental crust

Dolomite

Cross-bedded sandstone

Rock salt

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Ninth Edition

Diane H. Carlson California State University at Sacramento

Charles C. Plummer Emeritus of California State University at Sacramento

Lisa Hammersley California State University at Sacramento

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TM

PHYSICAL GEOLOGY: EARTH REVEALED, NINTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous editions © 2009, 2008, and 2006. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, tor broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOW/DOW 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 ISBN 978-0-07-336940-2 MHID 0-07-336940-3 Vice President & Editor-in-Chief: Martin Lange VP EDP / Central Publishing Services: Kimberly Meriwether David Publisher: Ryan Blankenship Executive Editor: Margaret J. Kemp Senior Marketing Manager: Lisa Nicks Project Manager: Robin A. Reed Design Coordinator: Brenda A. Rolwes Cover Designer: Studio Montage, St. Louis, Missouri Lead Photo Research Coordinator: Carrie K. Burger USE Cover Image Credit: © Digital Vision/Getty Images Senior Production Supervisor: Laura Fuller Senior Media Project Manager: Tammy Juran Composition: Laserwords Private Limited Typeface: 10.5/12 Times Roman Printer: R. R. Donnelley All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Carlson, Diane H. Physical geology: earth revealed.—9th ed. / Diane H. Carlson, Charles C. Plummer, Lisa Hammersley. p. cm. McGeary’s name appears first on the earlier eds. Companion text to Earth revealed, a PBS television course and video resource. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-336940-2 (softcover : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-07-336940-3 (softcover : alk. paper) I. Plummer, Charles C., 1937- II. Hammersley, Lisa. III. Plummer, Charles C., 1937- IV. Hammersley, Lisa. V. Earth revealed (Television program) VI. Title. VII. Title: Earth revealed. QE28.2.M34 2010 550—dc22 2009040823 The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a Web site does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill, and McGraw-Hill does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

www.mhhe.com

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Chapter

1

Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts 3

Chapter

2

Earth’s Interior and Geophysical Properties

Chapter

3

The Sea Floor

Chapter

4

Plate Tectonics

Chapter

5

Mountain Belts and the Continental Crust

Chapter

6

Geologic Structures

Chapter

7

Earthquakes

Chapter

8

Time and Geology

Chapter

9

Atoms, Elements, and Minerals

217

Chapter 10

Volcanism and Extrusive Rocks

243

Chapter 11

Igneous Rocks, Intrusive Activity, and the Origin of Igneous Rocks

Chapter 12

Weathering and Soil

Chapter 13

Mass Wasting

Chapter 14

Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks

Chapter 15

Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks

Chapter 16

Streams and Floods

Chapter 17

Ground Water

Chapter 18

Deserts and Wind Action

Chapter 19

Glaciers and Glaciation

Chapter 20

Waves, Beaches, and Coasts

Chapter 21

Resources

Chapter 22

The Earth’s Companions

29

53 75 111

135

157 189

275

301

325 351 383

407

443 467 489 521

543 573

v

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Earth’s Internal Structure 32

Preface xiii

The Crust 32 The Mantle 33 The Core 35

Isostasy 38 Gravity Measurements 40 Earth’s Magnetic Field 41 Magnetic Reversals 43 Magnetic Anomalies 44

1

Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts 3

Heat within the Earth 46 Geothermal Gradient 46 Heat Flow 47

SUMMARY 49

Who Needs Geology? 4 Supplying Things We Need 4 Protecting the Environment 5 Avoiding Geologic Hazards 5 Understanding Our Surroundings 11

Earth Systems 11 An Overview of Physical Geology—Important Concepts 13 Internal Processes: How the Earth’s Internal Heat Engine Works 13 Earth’s Interior 14 The Theory of Plate Tectonics 15 Divergent Boundaries 15 Convergent Boundaries 18 Transform Boundaries 20 Surficial Processes: The Earth’s External Heat Engine 20

Geologic Time 25

SUMMARY 26

3

The Sea Floor 53 Origin of the Ocean 54 Methods of Studying the Sea Floor 54 Features of the Sea Floor 56 Continental Shelves and Continental Slopes 56 Submarine Canyons 58 Turbidity Currents 59

Passive Continental Margins 60 The Continental Rise 61 Abyssal Plains 61

Active Continental Margins 62 Oceanic Trenches 62

Mid-Oceanic Ridges 63 Geologic Activity at the Ridges 63 Biologic Activity at the Ridges 64

2

Earth’s Interior and Geophysical Properties 29 Introduction 30 Evidence from Seismic Waves 30

Fracture Zones 64 Seamounts, Guyots, and Aseismic Ridges 65 Reefs 66 Sediments of the Sea Floor 68 Oceanic Crust and Ophiolites 68 The Age of the Sea Floor 71 The Sea Floor and Plate Tectonics 71

SUMMARY 71

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CONTENTS

vii

Thickness and Characteristics of Rock Layers 116 Patterns of Folding and Faulting 117 Metamorphism and Plutonism 117 Normal Faulting 118 Thickness and Density of Rocks 119 Features of Active Mountain Ranges 120

Evolution of Mountain Belts 120

4

Plate Tectonics 75 The Early Case for Continental Drift 77 Skepticism about Continental Drift 79

Orogenies and Plate Convergence 120 Post-Orogenic Uplift and Block-Faulting 126

The Growth of Continents 129 Displaced Terranes 130

SUMMARY 131

Paleomagnetism and the Revival of Continental Drift 80 Recent Evidence for Continental Drift 81 History of Continental Positions 82

Seafloor Spreading 82 Hess’s Driving Force 82 Explanations 83

Plates and Plate Motion 84 How Do We Know that Plates Move? 84

6

Marine Magnetic Anomalies 84 Another Test: Fracture Zones and Transform Faults 87 Measuring Plate Motion Directly 88

Divergent Plate Boundaries 88 Transform Boundaries 93 Convergent Plate Boundaries 93 Ocean-Ocean Convergence 93 Ocean-Continent Convergence 95 Continent-Continent Convergence 95

The Motion of Plate Boundaries 96 Plate Size 99 The Attractiveness of Plate Tectonics 99 What Causes Plate Motions? 100 Mantle Convection 100 Ridge Push 101 Slab Pull 101 Trench Suction 101 Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots 101

Geologic Structures 135 Tectonic Forces at Work 136

Stress and Strain in the Earth’s Lithosphere 136 How Do Rocks Behave When Stressed? 137

Structures as a Record of the Geologic Past 138 Geologic Maps and Field Methods 138

Folds 140 Geometry of Folds 141 Further Description of Folds 143

Fractures in Rock 145 Joints 145 Faults 147

SUMMARY 154

A Final Note 102

SUMMARY 106

7

Earthquakes 157

5

Mountain Belts and the Continental Crust 111 Introduction 112 Characteristics of Major Mountain Belts 115 Size and Alignment 115 Ages of Mountain Belts and Continents 115

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Causes of Earthquakes 158 Seismic Waves 159 Body Waves 159 Surface Waves 160

Locating and Measuring Earthquakes 161 Determining the Location of an Earthquake 161 Measuring the Size of an Earthquake 163 Location and Size of Earthquakes in the United States 165

Effects of Earthquakes 167 Tsunami 171

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CONTENTS

viii

World Distribution of Earthquakes 174 First-Motion Studies of Earthquakes 177 Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics 177 Earthquakes at Plate Boundaries 178 Subduction Angle 179

Earthquake Prediction and Seismic Risk 179

SUMMARY 185

8

Time and Geology 189 The Key to the Past 190 Relative Time 191

Principles Used to Determine Relative Age 191 Unconformities 196 Correlation 198 The Standard Geologic Time Scale 201

Numerical Age 201 Isotopic Dating 202 Uses of Isotopic Dating 207

Combining Relative and Numerical Ages 208 Age of the Earth 209 Comprehending Geologic Time 210

SUMMARY 212

Cleavage 234 Fracture 236 Specific Gravity 236 Special Properties 236 Chemical Tests 237

The Many Conditions of Mineral Formation 239

SUMMARY 239

10

Volcanism and Extrusive Rocks 243 Relationships to Earth Systems 244 Pyroclastic Debris and Lava Flows 244 Living with Volcanoes 244

Supernatural Beliefs 244 The Growth of an Island 247 Geothermal Energy 247 Effect on Climate 247 Volcanic Catastrophes 247 Eruptive Violence and Physical Characteristics of Lava 250

Extrusive Rocks and Gases 252 Scientific Investigation of Volcanism 252 Gases 252

Extrusive Rocks 253 Composition 253 Extrusive Textures 254

Types of Volcanoes 257 Shield Volcanoes 258 Cinder Cones 258 Composite Volcanoes 260 Volcanic Domes 263

Lava Floods 263 Submarine Eruptions 268

9

Atoms, Elements, and Minerals 217

Pillow Basalts 268

SUMMARY 270

Relationships to Earth Systems 218 Minerals 218 Introduction 218 Minerals and Rocks 219

Atoms and Elements 220 Ions and Bonding 222 Crystalline Structures 223 The Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron 224 Nonsilicate Minerals 229

Variations in Mineral Structures and Compositions 229 The Physical Properties of Minerals 229 Color 230 Streak 230 Luster 231 Hardness 231 External Crystal Form 232

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11

Igneous Rocks, Intrusive Activity, and the Origin of Igneous Rocks 275 Relationships to Earth Systems 276 The Rock Cycle 276 A Plate Tectonic Example 277

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CONTENTS Igneous Rocks 278 Igneous Rock Textures 279 Identification of Igneous Rocks 279 Chemistry of Igneous Rocks 283

ix

Soil Erosion 318 Soil Classification 319

SUMMARY 321

Intrusive Bodies 284 Shallow Intrusive Structures 284 Intrusives That Crystallize at Depth 286

Abundance and Distribution of Plutonic Rocks 287 How Magma Forms 288 Heat for Melting Rock 288 The Geothermal Gradient and Partial Melting 288 Decompression Melting 288 Addition of Water 289

How Magmas of Different Compositions Evolve 289 Sequence of Crystallization and Melting 289 Differentiation 290 Partial Melting 292 Assimilation 292 Mixing of Magmas 292

Explaining Igneous Activity by Plate Tectonics 293 Igneous Processes at Divergent Boundaries 293 Intraplate Igneous Activity 294 Igneous Processes at Convergent Boundaries 295

SUMMARY 297

13

Mass Wasting 325 Surficial Processes 325 Relationships to Earth Systems 326 Introduction to Mass Wasting 326 Classification of Mass Wasting 327 Rate of Movement 327 Type of Material 327 Type of Movement 327

Controlling Factors in Mass Wasting 330 Gravity 330 Water 331 Triggers 332

Common Types of Mass Wasting 332 Creep 332 Flow 334 Rockfalls and Rockslides 338

Underwater Landslides 341 Preventing Landslides 346

12

Weathering and Soil 301

Preventing Mass Wasting of Soil 346 Preventing Rockfalls and Rockslides on Highways 347

SUMMARY 348

Weathering, Erosion, and Transportation 302 Weathering and Earth Systems 302 Atmosphere 302 Hydrosphere 302 Biosphere 303

How Weathering Changes Rocks 303 Effects of Weathering 304 Mechanical Weathering 304 Pressure Release 305 Frost Action 305 Other Processes 306

Chemical Weathering 306 Role of Oxygen 307 Role of Acids 308 Solution Weathering 309 Chemical Weathering of Feldspar 310 Chemical Weathering of Other Minerals 311 Weathering Products 311 Factors Affecting Weathering 312

Soil 312 Soil Horizons 313 Factors Affecting Soil Formation 315

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14

Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks 351 Relationship to Earth Systems 352 Sediment 352 Transportation 353 Deposition 354 Preservation 355 Lithification 355

Types of Sedimentary Rocks 356 Detrital Rocks 356 Breccia and Conglomerate 356 Sandstone 357 The Fine-Grained Rocks 357

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CONTENTS

x

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 360 Carbonate Rocks 360 Chert 364 Evaporites 364

Metasomatism 401 Hydrothermal Rocks and Minerals 402

SUMMARY 404

Organic Sedimentary Rocks 366 Coal 366

The Origin of Oil and Gas 366 Sedimentary Structures 366 Fossils 369 Formations 372 Interpretation of Sedimentary Rocks 373 Source Area 373 Environment of Deposition 374 Transgression and Regression 376 Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Rocks 376

SUMMARY 378

16

Streams and Floods 407 Earth Systems—The Hydrologic Cycle 408 Running Water 409 Drainage Basins 410 Drainage Patterns 410 Factors Affecting Stream Erosion and Deposition 411

15

Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks 383 Relationships to Earth Systems 384 Introduction 384 Factors Controlling the Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks 385 Composition of the Parent Rock 386 Temperature 386 Pressure 387 Fluids 388 Time 389

Classification of Metamorphic Rocks 389 Nonfoliated Rocks 389 Foliated Rocks 391

Types of Metamorphism 393 Contact Metamorphism 393 Regional Metamorphism 393

Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism 397 Foliation and Plate Tectonics 397 Pressure-Temperature Regimes 397

Hydrothermal Processes 399

Velocity 411 Gradient 413 Channel Shape and Roughness 413 Discharge 413

Stream Erosion 414 Stream Transportation of Sediment 415 Stream Deposition 417 Bars 417 Braided Streams 420 Meandering Streams and Point Bars 420 Flood Plains 421 Deltas 423 Alluvial Fans 427

Stream Valley Development 427 Downcutting and Base Level 427 The Concept of a Graded Stream 429 Lateral Erosion 430 Headward Erosion 430 Stream Terraces 430 Incised Meanders 432

Flooding 432 Urban Flooding 434 Flash Floods 434 Controlling Floods 434 The Midwest Floods of 1993 and 2008 438

SUMMARY 440

Hydrothermal Activity at Divergent Plate Boundaries 400 Water at Convergent Boundaries 401

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CONTENTS

17

Ground Water 443 Introduction 444 Porosity and Permeability 444 The Water Table 445 The Movement of Ground Water 446 Aquifers 448 Wells 449 Springs and Streams 450 Contamination of Ground Water 452 Balancing Withdrawal and Recharge 456 Effects of Groundwater Action 457

Caves, Sinkholes, and Karst Topography 457 Other Effects 459

Hot Water Underground 460 Geothermal Energy 461

xi

19

Glaciers and Glaciation 489 Relationships to Earth Systems 490 Introduction 490 Glaciers—Where They Are, How They Form and Move 491 Distribution of Glaciers 491 Types of Glaciers 491 Formation and Growth of Glaciers 491 Movement of Valley Glaciers 494 Movement of Ice Sheets 496

Glacial Erosion 498 Erosional Landscapes Associated with Alpine Glaciation 499 Erosional Landscapes Associated with Continental Glaciation 503

Glacial Deposition 504 Moraines 506 Outwash 508 Glacial Lakes and Varves 509

Past Glaciation 509 Direct Effects of Past Glaciation in North America 512 Indirect Effects of Past Glaciation 513 Evidence for Older Glaciation 516

SUMMARY 463

SUMMARY 517

18

Deserts and Wind Action 467 Distribution of Deserts 468 Some Characteristics of Deserts 469 Desert Features in the Southwestern United States 472 Wind Action 477 Wind Erosion and Transportation 477 Wind Deposition 479

SUMMARY 486

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20

Waves, Beaches, and Coasts 521 Introduction 522 Water Waves 522 Surf 523

Near-Shore Circulation 524 Wave Refraction 524 Longshore Currents 524 Rip Currents 524

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CONTENTS

xii

Beaches 526 Longshore Drift of Sediment 527 Human Interference with Sand Drift 528 Sources of Sand on Beaches 530

Coasts and Coastal Features 530 Erosional Coasts 530 Depositional Coasts 532 Drowned Coasts 533 Uplifted Coasts 534 The Biosphere and Coasts 535

SUMMARY 540

22

The Earth’s Companions 573 The Earth in Space 574

The Sun 574 The Solar System 575 The Milky Way and the Universe 576

Origin of the Planets 578

21

Resources 543 Relationships to Earth Systems 544 Introduction 544 Reserves and Resources 544 Energy Resources 546

Nonrenewable Energy Resources 546 Renewable Energy Sources 558

Metallic Resources 560 Ores Formed by Igneous Processes 560 Ores Formed by Surface Processes 563

Mining 564 Nonmetallic Resources 566 Construction Materials 566 Fertilizers and Evaporites 566 Other Nonmetallics 567

The Solar Nebula 578 Formation of the Planets 580 Formation of Moons 580 Final Stages of Planet Formation 580 Formation of Atmospheres 580 Other Planetary Systems 580

Portraits of the Planets 581 Our Moon 581 Mercury 587 Venus 588 Mars 590 Why Are the Terrestrial Planets So Different? 596 Jupiter 597 Saturn 598 Uranus 600 Neptune 600

Pluto and the Ice Dwarves 600 Minor Objects of the Solar System 602 Meteors and Meteorites 602 Meteorites 602 Asteroids 603 Comets 603

Giant Impacts 605 Giant Meteor Impacts 605

SUMMARY 606

The Human Perspective 567

SUMMARY 569

Appendices A–G 608 Glossary 620 Index 632

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Why Use This Book? One excellent reason is that it’s tried and true. Physical Geology: Earth Revealed is a classic in introductory geology classes that has evolved into a market-leading text read by thousands of students. Proportionately, geology instructors have relied on this text for over 5,000 courses to explain, illustrate, and exemplify basic geologic concepts to both majors and nonmajors. Today, the 9th edition continues to provide contemporary perspectives that reflect current research, recent natural disasters, unmatched illustrations, and unparalleled learning aids. We have worked closely with contributors, reviewers, and our editors to publish the most accurate and current text possible.

Approach

This book contains the same text and illustrations as the thirteenth edition of Physical Geology by Plummer, Carlson, and Hammersley. The chapter order has been changed so that internal processes (plate tectonics, earthquakes, etc.) are covered in the first part of the book and external processes (rivers, glaciers, etc.) are described toward the end of the book. This ordering is favored by many geology instructors. As in the thirteenth edition of Physical Geology, the theme of interrelationships between plate tectonics and major geologic topics is carried throughout this book. We recognize that many instructors organize their courses in different ways. Therefore, we have made groups of chapters and individual chapters as self-contained as possible, allowing for customization. Those chapters on surficial processes can be covered earlier or later in a course. Many instructors prefer covering geologic time at the start of a course. If you would like to customize this text to fit your course needs or provide an outline text for your students, please contact your McGraw-Hill representatives.

Our purpose is to clearly present the various aspects of physical geology so that students can understand the logic of what scientists have discovered as well as the elegant way the parts are interrelated to explain how Earth, as a whole, works.

Forearc basin Mountain belt Trench

Oceanic crust

Magmatic Backarc arc thrust belt

Built-up natural levees

Sedimentary basin Craton

Backswamp

Accretionary wedge Continental crust

Upper-mantle lithosphere Asthenosphere Earthquakes

Metamorphic rock Rising magma 100-Kilometer depth

Sedimentary rock folded prior to faulting

30 km

Normal faults Sediment from eroded fault blocks

xiii

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xiv

PREFACE

NEW TO THE NINTH EDITION Superior Photo and Art Programs Geology is a visually oriented science, and one of the best ways a student can learn it is by studying illustrations and photographs. The outstanding photo and art programs in this text feature accuracy in scale, realism, and aesthetic appeal that provides students with the best visual learning tools available in the market.

A Geologist’s View Photos accompanied by an illustration depicting how a geologist would view the scene are featured in the text. Students gain experience understanding how the trained eye of a geologist views a landscape in order to comprehend the geologic events that have occurred.

Animations

Middle Teton

Middle Teton Glacier

U-shaped valley

McGraw-Hill is proud to bring you outstanding animations, located on the website, that offer students an exciting method of learning about such geology concepts as dynamics of groundwater movement, isostacy, plate tectonics, and much more. A special animation icon has been placed beside each figure in the text that has a corresponding animation. Grand Teton

Rounded knobs

M o r a i n e

Three Page Foldout This foldout, located in the back of the text, is constructed so students can easily leave it folded out and refer to it while reading the text. The front side contains a geographic map of the world so that students can gain a better sense of the location of the places that are mentioned within the text. The North America Tapestry of Time and Terrain map is located on the back of the foldout.

Stream terraces

Geologist’s View

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PREFACE

CHANGES TO THE NINTH EDITION Chapter One We expanded upon the Box on the Trans-Alaska Pipeline to describe how the pipeline survived displacement of fault motion during an earthquake of the same magnitude as the disastrous 2008 earthquake in China which killed over 87,000 people. We added a photo and website information to explain why the portion of the pipeline straddling the fault did not rupture thanks to specially designed bends in the pipeline riding along teflon shoes sliding along rails. In the box we point out that because of diminishing output of oil from Alaska’s North Slope oil fields and increasing demands, Americans are importing more foreign oil than before the giant Alaskan oil fields were put into production in the 1970s. The chapter now includes information on accessing video clips of the disastrous 2004 tsunami that originated in Indonesia.

Chapter Two We updated information on the use of energy generated by tidal friction, ocean waves, and storms to gain an even more detailed image of the crust and upper mantle. We also introduce how seismic tomography studies indicate the mantle is more heterogeneous than previously thought, probably due to variations in temperature, composition, and density. The box on “Earth’s Spinning Inner Core” incorporates new data from additional earthquake records that suggest the inner core is rotating even slower than the original model predicted, and may take 900 years for the inner core to gain a full lap on the rest of the planet because of ‘clumps’ in the highvelocity pathways in the inner core.

Chapter Four China’s Sichuan earthquake of 2008 was added to the box on “Indentation Tectonics and ‘Mushy’ Plate Boundaries” to show how some earthquakes occur far from plate boundaries. We added new websites and revised several figures to help students better visualize plate tectonics.

Chapter Five We describe the relationship of faulting in China associated with the disastrous earthquake of 2008 to the regional pattern of deformation (shown in figure 5.15) in and around the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau. A new box describes recent multi-disciplinary research into the growth of the Andes. Subduction of the oceanic plate under the continental South American Plate began around fifty million years ago. The resulting, still ongoing, orogeny resulted in slow growth during most of the past 50 million years. However, about ten million years ago the Andes began rising more rapidly, attributed to the foundering of dense lower crust and lithospheric mantle into the less dense underlying mantle. The figure showing exotic terranes traveling from the southern hemisphere and becoming part of Alaska was deleted from this edition.

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Chapter Six We rewrote the box on the San Andreas Fault to include the exciting research being done at the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth where geologists drilled into an active, plate boundary fault to test hypotheses about how earthquakes are generated and to evaluate the rolls of fluid pressure, rock friction, and chemical reactions in controlling fault strength. The box includes new diagrams and new websites where students can take a virtual field trip along the entire length of the fault and also view the rock cores brought up from the depth where earthquakes occur along the fault. To help students better visualize the different types of folds, we have expanded the definitions of anticline, syncline, dome, basin, and open fold; the definition of a tight fold has been added. Questions at the end of the chapter reflect these changes.

Chapter Seven Chapter 7 has been updated to include the magnitude 7.9 earthquake that struck the Sichuan province in China on May 12, 2008. The tragic loss of life, particularly of children trapped as almost 7,000 schools collapsed, is discussed in the box on “Earthquake Engineering.” The box on “How to Prepare for and Survive an Earthquake” has also been rewritten and illustrated based on the latest earthquake research and safety information. The “Waiting for the Big One in California” box has been revised and updated to include the 2007 Uniform California Rupture Forecast (UCERF) that estimates the chance of a magnitude 6.7 earthquake in California to be 99.7% over the next 30 years. The discussion of tsunamis now includes a website that describes tsunami warnings for the Pacific Ocean and anywhere else in the world. Of note is our discussion of the new tsunami warning system in the Indian Ocean that should be fully operational by 2010. Finally, the section on earthquakes in the United States has been updated to include the most recent earthquakes that have struck the east coast and the Midwest.

Chapter Eight We describe recently achieved accuracy for isotopic dating. Because of the greater accuracy the dating of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic boundary has been tentatively changed from 65.5 to 66.0 million years ago and the Paleozoic-Mesozoic boundary from 251.0 to 252.5 m.y. These new dates place the boundaries closer to the times during which there were huge basalt floods and suggest a greater role for vulcanism in Earth’s two greatest mass extinctions (which characterize the boundaries between the eras). As reported by scientists in 2008, the oldest rock found on Earth is now 4.28 billion years (the previous oldest rock dated is 4.03 b.y.). The origin of names for the periods have been added to the Geologic Time Scale. A link to a website that focuses on international cooperation among geochronologists has been added.

Chapter Nine We have rewritten the introduction so that it begins with the definition of a mineral which puts our discussion of crystallinity and chemical composition in the context of a clearly stated definition. We added a new section entitled “Rocks and Minerals” which more clearly defines the differences (and connections) between rocks, minerals and elements. Figure 9.1 has been changed to better illustrate the relationship between elements, rocks and minerals. The discussion of atomic structure, ionization, bonding and crystalline structures has been reorganized so that the reader can progress

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xvi

PREFACE

logically from the structure of an atom to ionization and the driving forces behind bonding and finally to the crystalline structures that result from bonding. Figure 9.15 has been replaced with a photomicrograph of a plagioclase crystal that has not been stained.

Chapter Ten A new In Greater Depth box that discusses the Volcanic Explosivity Index has been added to this chapter.

Chapter Eleven The section on the varieties of granite has been removed to keep the discussion of different igneous rock types simple. The “How Magma Forms” section has been rewritten. It now discusses the conditions within the mantle under normal circumstances followed by descriptions of the circumstances that can lead to melting. New figures have been added to this section to accompany the new text.

Chapter Twelve Chapter 12 includes new photos of differential weathering, rills, and splash erosion as well as a revised figure on frost wedging. A new figure more clearly illustrates the difference between residual and transported soils. We also emphasize the importance of soils as the life-supporting interface between spheres in Earth Systems.

Chapter Thirteen We clarified what a “landslide trigger” is and added a discussion of landslides triggered by China’s May, 2008, earthquake. A new paragraph describes the dating of 740,000 year old ice in Canadian permafrost and the implications regarding ongoing global warming. Also, a new URL refers the reader to a website that discusses the effects of climate warming on permafrost. The discussion of Italy’s Vaiont dam’s disastrous landslide was placed in a box.

Chapter Fourteen We have updated the box, “Sedimentary Rocks: The Key to Mars’ Past” to include the important new discoveries by the Phoenix Mars Lander—such as the presence of frozen water in the soil under the landing site and the results of the first wet chemical analyses done on any planet other than Earth which revealed the presence of evaporites and carbonate. These results support the interpretation of water-deposited rocks on Mars and the possibility of extraterrestrial life. There is a new figure that illustrates the importance of sedimentary rocks and materials that are used in everyday living and the importance of commodities that are sedimentary in origin. The figure illustrating transgression and regression has been revised to more clearly show this important process. We have also integrated photos with the figure on sorting to more realistically show how a river can sort sediment. In addition, we have rewritten the sections on Earth Systems and turbidity currents to improve clarity for the introductory student. Websites at the end of the chapter were updated.

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Chapter Sixteen We have rearranged chapter 16 so that stream processes lead to the discussion of flooding; it was previously placed near the end of the chapter. This new edition includes the devastating floods that struck the Midwestern United States during May and June of 2008 and a comparison with the Great Flood of 1993. It also includes the devastation of Irrawaddy tidal delta and the tremendous loss of life caused by Hurricane Nargis, which was the Hurricane Katrina of Asia. The box on the controlled floods in the Grand Canyon has been updated to include the March 2008 experiment to rebuild sandbars and beaches along the Colorado River below the Glen Canyon Dam. The “Consequences of Controlling the Mississippi River and the Flooding of New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina” box has been updated to include the progress that has been made to protect New Orleans since Katrina; also, the near miss from Hurricane Gustav in September of 2008. We have also rewritten the box on “Stream Features on the Planet Mars” to include the exciting new discovery of a delta with distributary channels in the Jezero Crater taken by the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) aboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. The CRISM also determined that the delta and the crater contain clay minerals and that the crater was probably once occupied by a lake slightly larger than California’s Lake Tahoe. We have also updated websites at the end of and throughout the chapter.

Chapter Seventeen Chapter 17 includes minor rewrites of porosity and permeability and the movement of ground water sections to improve clarity for the introductory student. We have also included new photos of geysers and ground-water pollution, and updated the websites throughout and at the end of the chapter.

Chapter Eighteen We have updated the box on “Expanding Deserts” with new information on the desertification of the Aral Sea and attempts to restore the northern part of the sea. The box includes links to the United Nations website that provide dramatic before and after photos of the shrinking of the southern Aral Sea. We have also included a new diagram that more clearly illustrates how global air circulation affects the distribution of deserts, and we replaced photos illustrating deserts and sand dunes.

Chapter Nineteen Discussion of the role of glaciation relative to ongoing global warming was expanded. We note that continuing shrinking of glaciers is progressively reducing the amount of meltwater available for agriculture and other human needs. We added website links to the boxes on glaciers as a water resource and on lakes beneath the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. Since our last edition, many more lakes beneath the East Antarctic Ice Sheet have been discovered. The photo of an iceberg has been replaced by one of a grounded iceberg offshore from Palmer Station, Antarctica. In the background is the steep face of a glacier where iceberg calving takes place. For the box “Global Warming and Glaciers,” we have replaced the photo of an ice core with two photos: one shows a core being removed from the barrel of an ice corer; the other is a one-meter section of ice core that shows pronounced layering inherited from the original layers of snow. The satellite image showing glacially scoured terrain in northern Canada was replaced with a better image.

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Chapter Twenty The box on “Coasts in Peril – The Effects of Rising Sea Level” has been updated with the latest estimates of past and future sea level rise; the box now introduces the process of barrier rollover. We have also updated the hurricane box to include the details of Hurricanes Gustav and Ike and showcase the devastation caused when the storm surge from Hurricane Ike struck Galveston and nearly completely demolished towns to the north on the Bolivar Peninsula. In addition, the process of wave refraction was rewritten to improve clarity for the introductory student. New photos of coastal processes have been added. Websites were updated throughout the chapter.

Chapter Twenty-One This chapter has been extensively reorganized and rewritten. All units are now SI units (with British units in parentheses). The discussion of reserves and resources has been moved to the beginning of the chapter and is now in a single section. The section on energy resources has been divided into non-renewable and renewable sources. The coal and petroleum sections have been shortened for the sake of clarity. The renewable energy resources discussion has been expanded to include more information on solar energy, wind power, hydropower, wave energy, and biofuels. New figures have been added for solar and wind power. The Some Important Metals section has been removed and the information has been summarized within a single table showing important metals, their ore minerals and common uses.

Integration of the World Wide Web—The Internet has revolutionized the way we obtain knowledge, and this book makes full use of its potential to help students learn. We have URLs for appropriate websites throughout the book—within the main body of text, at the end of many boxes, and at the end of chapters. We have made the process student-friendly by having all websites that we mention in the book posted as links in this book’s website. (We also include all URLs in the textbook for those who wish to go directly to a site.)

Internet Exercises—These are located on the text’s website and allow students to investigate appropriate sites as well as raise interest for further, independent exploration on a topic. The website also includes additional readings and video resources. By placing these on the website, we can update them after the book has been published. We expect to add more sites and exercises to our website as we discover new ones after the book has gone to press. In addition, it features online quizzes, flashcards, animations, and other interactive items to help a student succeed in a geology course.

Study Aids are found at the end of each chapter and include: • Summaries bring together and summarize the major concepts of the chapter. • Terms to Remember include all the boldfaced terms covered in the chapter so that students can verify their understanding of the concepts behind each term

Chapter Twenty-Two

• Testing Your Knowledge Quizzes allow students to gauge their understanding of the chapter (The answers to the multiple choice portions are posted on the website.)

Minor updates were made to chapter 22. Information on the main asteroid belt and the trans-Neptunian region was added to the Solar System section. Discussion of recent research showing that diamonds may be “raining” on Uranus was added to the Uranus section. References back to the internal and external heat engines discussed in chapter one were made in appropriate places as book ends for the entire text.

• Expanding Your Knowledge Questions stimulate a student’s critical thinking by asking questions with answers that are not found in the textbook. • Exploring Web Resources describe some of the best sites on the web that relate to the chapter.

Key Features •

Chapter Introductions—Each chapter begins with a “Purpose Statement,” and an explanation of how the chapter relates to the Earth systems and how the material relates to the concepts in other chapters.

Supplements Dedicated to providing high-quality and effective supplements for instructors and students, the following supplements were developed for Physical Geology: Earth Revealed.

Environmental Geology Boxes—Discuss topics that relate the chapter material to environmental issues, including impact on humans (e.g., Radon—A Radioactive Health Hazard).

In Greater Depth Boxes—Discuss phenomena that are not necessarily covered in a geology course (e.g., Precious Gems) or present material in greater depth (e.g., Calculating the Age of a Rock).

For Instructors

Earth Systems Boxes—Highlight the interrelationships between the geosphere, the atmosphere, and other Earth systems (e.g., Oxygen Isotopes and Climate Change).

www.mhhe.com/carlson9e The companion website contains the following resources for instructors:

Planetary Geology Boxes—Compare features elsewhere in the solar system to their Earthly counterparts (e.g., Stream Features on the Planet Mars).

Animations—Key concepts are further enhanced by animations that are located on the website. These are identified in the text by the icon.

Companion Website

Presentation Tools Everything you need for outstanding presentations in one place! This easy-to-use table of assets includes • Animation PowerPoints—Numerous full-color animations illustrating important processes are also provided. Harness the visual impact of concepts in motion by importing these files into classroom presentations or online course materials. • Lecture PowerPoints—with animations fully embedded

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PREFACE

• Labeled and unlabeled JPEG images—Full-color digital files of all illustrations that can be readily incorporated into presentations, exams, or custom-made classroom materials. • Tables—Tables from the text are available in electronic format. •

Presentation Center—In addition to the images from your book, this online digital library contains photos, artwork, animations, quizzes, and other media from an array of McGraw-Hill textbooks that can be used to create customized lectures, visually enhanced tests and quizzes, compelling course websites, or attractive printed support materials. All assets are copyrighted by McGraw-Hill Higher Education, but can be used by instructors for classroom purposes.

Instructor’s Manual—The instructor’s manual contains chapter outlines, lecture enrichment ideas, and critical thinking questions.

Computerized Test Bank—A comprehensive bank of test questions is provided within a computerized test bank powered by McGrawHill’s flexible electronic testing program EZ Test Online. EZ Test Online allows you to create paper and online tests or quizzes in this easy to use program! Imagine being able to create and access your test or quiz anywhere, at any time, without installing the testing software. Now, with EZ Test Online, instructors can select questions from multiple McGraw-Hill test banks or author their own, and then either print the test for paper distribution or give it online.

For Students Companion Website www.mhhe.com/carlson9e The Carlson, Physical Geology: Earth Revealed companion website is an electronic study system that offers students a digital portal of knowledge. Students can readily access a variety of digital learning objects that include: •

Chapter-level quizzing

Animations with quizzing

Virtual Vistas

Electronic Book If you or your students are ready for an alternative version of the traditional textbook, McGraw-Hill has partnered with CourseSmart to bring you innovative and inexpensive electronic textbooks. Students can save up to 50% off the cost of a print book, reduce their impact on the environment, and gain access to powerful web tools for learning including full text search, notes and highlighting, and email tools for sharing notes between classmates. eBooks from McGraw-Hill are smart, interactive, searchable and portable. To review comp copies or to purchase an eBook, go to www.Course Smart.com.

Test Creation •

Author/edit questions online using the 14 different question type templates

Packaging Opportunities

Create question pools to offer multiple versions online—great for practice

Export your tests for use in WebCT®, Blackboard, PageOut, and Apple’s iQuiz

Sharing tests with colleagues, adjuncts, TAs is easy

McGraw-Hill offers packaging opportunities that not only provide students with valuable course-related material, but also a substantial cost savings. Ask your McGraw-Hill sales representative for information on discounts and special ISBNs for ordering a package that contains one of the following laboratory manuals:

Online Test Management •

Set availability dates and time limits for your quiz or test

Assign points by question or question type with dropdown menu

Provide immediate feedback to students or delay feedback until all finish the test

Create practice tests online to enable student mastery

Your roster can be uploaded to enable student self-registration

Online Scoring and Reporting •

Physical Geology Laboratory Manual, Fourteenth Edition, by Zumberge et al. ISBN 9180073051499 (MHID 0073051497)

Laboratory Manual for Physical Geology, Seventh Edition, by Jones/Jones ISBN 9780073369396 (MHID 007336939X)

Custom Publishing Did you know that you can design your own text or laboratory manual using any McGraw-Hill text and your personal materials to create a custom product that correlates specifically to your syllabus and course goals? Contact your McGraw-Hill sales representative to learn more about this option.

Automated scoring for most of EZ Test’s numerous question types

Allows manual scoring for essay and other open-response questions

Manual rescoring and feedback are also available

EZ Test’s grade book is designed to easily export to your grade book

View basic statistical reports

Support and Help •

Flash tutorials for getting started on the support site

Support Website: www.mhhe.com/eztest

Product specialist available at 1-800-331-5094

Online Training: http://auth.mhhe.com/mpss/workshops

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Tegrity Campus is a service that makes class time available all the time by automatically capturing every lecture in a searchable format for students to review when they study and complete assignments. With a simple oneclick start and stop process, you capture all computer screens and corresponding audio. Students replay any part of any class with easy-to-use browser-based viewing on a PC or Mac. Educators know that the more students can see, hear, and experience class resources, the better they learn. With Tegrity Campus, students quickly recall key moments by using Tegrity Campus’s unique search fea-

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PREFACE ture. This search helps students efficiently find what they need, when they need it across an entire term of class recordings. Help turn all your students’ study time into learning moments immediately supported by your lecture. To learn more about Tegrity watch a 2 minute Flash demo at http:// tegritycampus.mhhe.com.

Acknowledgments We have tried to write a book that will be useful to both students and instructors. We would be grateful for any comments by users, especially regarding mistakes within the text or sources of good geological photographs. Although he is no longer listed as an author, this edition bears a lot of the writing, style, and geologic philosophy of the late David McGeary. He was coauthor of the original edition and his authorship continued until he retired and turned over revision of his half of the book to Diane Carlson. We greatly appreciate his role in making this book successful way beyond what he or his original coauthor could ever dream of. Tom Arny wrote the planetary geology chapter for the 6th edition. This chapter was revised and updated by Steve Kadel for the 7th and 8th editions and by Lisa Hammersley for this edition. We greatly appreciate the publisher’s “book team,” whose names appear on the copyright page. Their guidance, support, and interest in the book were vital for the completion of this edition. Thank you also to Cindy Shaw for her contribution to the superior art program of this edition. Mary Jo Colletti helped revise the soil section and box in chapter 12 and also helped write the boxes on the effects of

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Hurricane Katrina in chapters 16 and 20. She also helped with the research and revision of the 9th edition. Dr. Nancy Buening researched and wrote the box on Racetrack Playa in chapter 20. Diane Carlson would like to thank her husband Reid Buell for his tireless support and for his technical assistance with engineering geology and hydrogeology material in several chapters. Charles Plummer thanks his wife, Beth Strasser, for assistance with photography in the field and for her perspective as a paleontologist and anthropologist. We thank Susan Slaymaker for writing the planetary geology material originally in early editions. We are also very grateful to the following reviewers for their careful evaluation and useful suggestions for improvement. Joseph C. Hill Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania Ellen A. Cowan Appalachian State University Lindsey C. Henry University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee Adil Wadia University of Akron Wayne College Glenn B. Stracher East Georgia College Chris Dewey Mississippi State University David R. Berry California State Polytechnic University, Ponoma Samantha Reif Lincoln Land Community College Barbara Savage College of the Mainland Hayden Chasteen Tarrant County College Harold C. Connolly Jr. Kingsborough Community College Pamela Nelson Glendale Community College Sadredin Moosavi Tulane University Dave Berner Normandale Community College

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Diane Carlson at South Lake in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California.

Charles Plummer at Thengboche, in the Himalayan Mountains of Nepal.

Lisa Hammersley at the Devil’s Postpile National Monument near Mammoth Lakes, CA.

DIANE CARLSON Professor Diane Carlson grew up on the glaciated Precambrian shield of northern Wisconsin and received an A.A. degree at Nicolet College in Rhinelander and B.S. in geology at the University of Wisconsin at Eau Claire. She continued her studies at the University of Minnesota–Duluth, where she focused on the structural complexities of high-grade metamorphic rocks along the margin of the Idaho batholith for her master’s thesis. The lure of the West and an opportunity to work with the U.S. Geological Survey to map the Colville batholith in northeastern Washington led her to Washington State University for her Ph.D. Dr. Carlson accepted a position at California State University, Sacramento, after receiving her doctorate and teaches physical geology, structural geology, environmental geology, and field geology. Professor Carlson is a recipient of the Outstanding Teacher Award from the CSUS School of Arts and Sciences. She is also engaged in researching the structural and tectonic evolution of part of the Foothill Fault System in the northern Sierra Nevada of California. ([emailprotected])

CHARLES PLUMMER Professor Charles “Carlos” Plummer grew up in the shadows of volcanoes in Mexico City. There, he developed a love for mountains and mountaineering that eventually led him into geology. He received his B.A. degree from Dartmouth College. After graduation, he served in the U.S. Army as an artillery officer. He resumed his geological education at the University of Washington, where he received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees. His geologic work has been in mountainous and polar regions, notably Antarctica (where a glacier is named in his honor). He taught at Olympic Community College in Washington and worked for the U.S. Geologic Survey before joining the faculty at California State University, Sacramento. At CSUS, he taught optical mineralogy, metamorphic petrology, and field courses as well as introductory courses. He retired from teaching in 2003. He skis, has a private pilot license, and is certified for open-water SCUBA diving. ([emailprotected])

LISA HAMMERSLEY Dr. Lisa Hammersley hails originally from England and received a BSc. in geology from the University of Birmingham. After graduating she travelled the world for a couple of years before returning to her studies and received a Ph.D. in Geology from the University of California at Berkeley. She joined the faculty at California State University, Sacramento in 2003 where she teaches physical geology, geology of Mexico, mineralogy and metallic ore deposits. Dr. Hammersley specializes in igneous petrology with an emphasis on geochemistry. Her interests involve understanding magma chamber processes and how they affect the evolution of volcanic systems. She has worked on volcanic systems in Ecuador and the U.S. and is currently studying areas in northern California and central Mexico. Dr. Hammersley also works in the field of geoarcheology; using geologic techniques to identify the sources of rocks used to produce stone grinding tools found near the pyramids of Teotihuacan in Mexico. ([emailprotected])

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Chapter 1

Chapter 5

Reading Boxes

Reading Boxes

Environmental Geology 1.1: Delivering Alaskan Oil—The Environment VERSUS the Economy Environmental Geology 1.2: The 1991 Eruption of Mount Pinatubo— Geologists Save Thousands of Lives In Greater Depth 1.3: Geology as a Career In Greater Depth 1.4: Plate Tectonics and the Scientific Method

Animation

Figure 1.9: Divergence of Plates at Mid-Oceanic Ridge Figure 1.10: Convergence of plates—ocean-continent Figure 1.11: Convergence of plates—ocean-ocean Figure 1.12: Convergence of plates—continent-continent Figure 1.13: Transform faults

Earth Systems 5.1: A System Approach to Understanding Mountains In Greater Depth 5.2: Ultramafic Rocks in Mountain Belts—From the Mantle to Talcum Powder Web Box 5.3: Dance of the Continents (with SWEAT) In Greater Depth 5.4: Rise of the Andes during Plate Convergence

Animations

Figure 5.16: Isostasy in a Mountain Belt

Chapter 6 Reading Boxes

Chapter 2

In Greater Depth 6.1: Is There Oil Beneath My Property? First Check the Geologic Structure In Greater Depth 6.2: California’s Greatest Fault—The San Andreas

Reading Boxes

Animations

In Greater Depth 2.1: A CAT Scan of the Mantle In Greater Depth 2.2: Earth’s Spinning Inner Core

Animations Figures 2.8 and 2.9: P and S Wave Shadow Zones Figure 2.11: Isostacy-Basic Principle Figure 2.12: How Isostacy, Orogeny, and Metamorphism Are Interrelated Figure 2.13: Isostatic Rebound after Deglaciation

Chapter 3 Reading Boxes

Earth Systems 3.1: Does the Earth Breathe? Environmental Geology 3.2: Geologic Riches in the Sea

Chapter 4 Reading Boxes

In Greater Depth 4.1: Backarc Spreading In Greater Depth 4.2: Indentation Tectonics and “Mushy” Plate Boundaries Earth Systems 4.3: The Relationship between Plate Tectonics and Ore Deposits

Animations

Figure 4.12: Seafloor Spreading Figure 4.14: Magnetic Reversals at MO Ridge Figure 4.16: How Seafloor Spreading Creates Magnetic Polarity Stripes Figure 4.17: Age of Ocean Floor Figure 4.18: Transform Faults Figure 4.20: Continental Rifting and Early Drift Figure 4.25: Convergence of Plates-Ocean-Ocean Figure 4.27: Convergence of Plates-Ocean-Continent Figure 4.28: Convergence of Plates-Continent-Continent Figure 4.34: Formation of Hawaiian Island Chain by Hotspot Volcanism

Figure 6.17: Styles of Folding Figure 6.21: Styles of Faulting Figure 6.23: Normal Faulting Figure 6.25c: Reverse and Thrust Faults

Chapter 7 Reading Boxes

In Greater Depth 7.1: Earthquake Engineering Environmental Geology 7.2: Waiting for the Big One in California Environmental Geology 7.3: How to Prepare for and Survive an Earthquake

Animations

Figure 7.3: Earthquake Focus Figure 7.4: Earthquake Waves Figure 7.5: Seismometer Figure 7.6: Seismometer Figure 7.7, 7.8, 7.9: Locating Earthquake Epicenter

Chapter 8 Reading Boxes

Earth Systems 8.1: Highlights of the Evolution of Life through Time Earth Systems 8.2: Demise of the Dinosaurs—Was It Extraterrestrial? Environmental Geology 8.3: Radon, a Radioactive Health Hazard In Greater Depth 8.4: Calculating the Age of a Rock

Animation

Figure 8.25: The Geologic History of the Earth Scaled to a Single Year

Chapter 9 Reading Boxes

Earth Systems 9.1: Oxygen Isotopes and Climate Change In Greater Depth 9.2: Elements in the Earth

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Environmental Geology 9.3: Asbestos—How Hazardous Is It? Environmental Geology 9.4: Clay Minerals that Swell In Greater Depth 9.5: Precious Gems Web Box 9.6: On Time with Quartz In Greater Depth 9.7: Water and Ice—Molecules and Crystals

Web Box 15.3: Metamorphic Facies and Its Relationship to Plate Tectonics Environmental Geology 15.4: The World’s Largest Human-made Hole—The Bingham Canyon Copper Mine

Animations

Figure 15.24: Hydrothermal Ore Vein Formation

Figures 9.11 and 9.12: Silicate Mineral Structures

Chapter 10 Reading Boxes

Environmental Geology 10.1: Mount St. Helens Blows Up In Greater Depth 10.2: Volcanic Explosivity Index Planetary Geology 10.3: Extraterrestrial Volcanic Activity Environmental Geology 10.4: A Tale of Two Volcanoes—Lives Lost and Lives Saved in the Caribbean Earth Systems 10.5: The Largest Humanly Observed Fissure Eruption and Collateral Deadly Gas Web Box 10.6: Fighting a Volcano in Iceland—and Winning

Animation

Chapter 16 Reading Boxes

Environmental Geology 16.1: Controlled Floods in the Grand Canyon: Bold Experiments to Restore Sediment Movement in the Colorado River Environmental Geology 16.2: Consequences of Controlling the Mississippi River and the Flooding of New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina Planetary Geology 16.3: Stream Features on the Planet Mars In Greater Depth 16.4: Estimating the Size and Frequency of Floods

Animations

Chapter 11

Figure 16.13: Modes of Sediment Transport Figure 16.20: River Meander Development

Reading Boxes

Chapter 17

In Greater Depth 11.1: Pegmatite—A Rock Made of Giant Crystals Web Box 11.2: Bowen’s Reaction Series in Greater Depth Environmental Geology 11.3: Harnessing Magmatic Energy

Animation

Figure 11.24: How Subduction Causes Volcanism

Chapter 12 Reading Boxes

Earth Systems 12.1: Weathering, the Carbon Cycle, and Global Climate In Greater Depth 12.2: Where Do Aluminum Cans Come From?

Chapter 13 Reading Boxes

Environmental Geology 13.1: Disaster in the Andes Environmental Geology 13.2: Los Angeles, A Mobile Society Environmental Geology 13.3: Failure of the St. Francis Dam—A Tragic Consequence of Geology Ignored Environmental Geology 13.4: A Rockslide Becomes a Rock Avalanche Which Creates a Giant Wave That Destroys Towns

Animation

Figure 13.1: Types of Earth Movements

Chapter 14 Reading Boxes

In Greater Depth 14.1: Valuable Sedimentary Rocks Planetary Geology 14.2: Sedimentary Rocks: The Key to Mars’ Past

Animations

Figure 14.25: Migration of Sand Grains to Form Ripples, Dunes, and Crossbeds Figure 14.28: Formation of a Graded Bed

Chapter 15

Reading Boxes

In Greater Depth 17.1: Darcy’s Law and Fluid Potential Environmental Geology 17.2: Hard Water and Soapsuds

Animations Figure 17.7: Basic Dynamics of Groundwater Movement Figure 17.18a: Landfill and Cone Depression Figure 17.18b, c, d: Cone of Depression and Saltwater Intrusion during Groundwater Pumping

Chapter 18 Reading Boxes

Environmental Geology 18.1: Expanding Deserts Earth Systems 18.2: Mysterious Sailboats of the Desert Earth Systems 18.3: Desert Pavement and Desert Varnish Planetary Geology 18.4: Wind Action on Mars

Chapter 19 Reading Boxes

Environmental Geology 19.1: Glaciers as a Water Resource Environmental Geology 19.2: Water Beneath Glaciers: Floods, Giant Lakes, and Galloping Glaciers Earth Systems 19.3: Global Warming and Glaciers Planetary Geology 19.4: Mars on a Glacier Earth Systems 19.5: Causes of Glacial Ages In Greater Depth 19.6: The Channeled Scablands

Animations

Figure 19.3: Directions of Ice Flows Figure 19.6: Dynamics of Glacial Advance and Retreat Figure 19.9b: Crevasse Formation in Glaciers Figure 19.28: Formation of Glacial Features by Deposition at a Wasting Ice Front Figure 19.33: Glacial Maximum and Deglaciation

Reading Boxes

Planetary Geology 15.1: Impact Craters and Shock Metamorphism In Greater Depth 15.2: Index Minerals

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Chapter 20

Chapter 21

Reading Boxes

Reading Boxes

Environmental Geology 20.1: Coasts in Peril—The Effects of Rising Sea Level Earth Systems 20.2: Hurricanes—Devastation on the Coast

Animations

Figure 20.8: Seasonal Beach Cycle Figure 20.9: Wave Refraction and Longshore Movement of Sand and Water

In Greater Depth 21.1: Copper and Reserve Growth Environmental Geology 21.2: Flammable Ice: Gas Hydrate Deposits— Solution to Energy Shortage or Major Contributor to Global Warming? Environmental Geology 21.3: Substitutes, Recycling, and Conservation

Chapter 22 Animations

Figure 22.8: Formation of the Solar System Figure 22.10: Impact Formation of the Moon

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1 Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts Who Needs Geology? Supplying Things We Need Protecting the Environment Avoiding Geologic Hazards Understanding Our Surroundings

Earth Systems An Overview of Physical Geology—Important Concepts Internal Processes: How the Earth’s Internal Heat Engine Works Earth’s Interior The Theory of Plate Tectonics Divergent Boundaries Convergent Boundaries Transform Boundaries Surficial Processes: The Earth’s External Heat Engine

Geologic Time Summary

G

eology uses the scientific method to explain natural aspects of the Earth—for example, how mountains form or why oil resources are concentrated in some rocks and not in others. This chapter briefly explains how and why Earth’s surface and its interior are constantly changing. The chapter relates the changes to the major geological topics of interaction of the atmosphere, water and rock, the modern theory of plate tectonics, and geologic time. These concepts form a framework for the rest of the book. Understanding the “big picture” presented here will aid you in comprehending the chapters that follow. Mount Robson, 3,954 meters (12,972 feet) above sea level, is the highest peak in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Photo © J. A. Kraulis/Masterfile

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Strategy for Using This Textbook ■

As authors, we try to be thorough in our coverage of topics so the textbook can serve you as a resource. Your instructor may choose, however, to concentrate only on certain topics for your course. Find out which topics and chapters you should focus on in your studying and concentrate your energies there. Your instructor may present additional material that is not in the textbook. Take good notes in class. Do not get overwhelmed by terms. (Every discipline has its own language.) Don’t just memorize each term and its definition. If you associate a term with a concept or mental picture, remembering the term comes naturally when you understand the concept. (You remember names of people you know because you associate personality and physical characteristics with a name.) You may find it helpful to learn the meanings of frequently used prefixes and suffixes for geological terms. These can be found in appendix G. Boldfaced terms are ones you are likely to need to understand because they are important to the entire course. Italicized terms are not as important but may be necessary to understand the material in a particular chapter. Pay particular attention to illustrations. Geology is a visually oriented science, and the photos and artwork are at least as important as the text. You should be able to sketch important concepts from memory. Find out to what extent your instructor expects you to learn the material in the boxes. They offer an interesting perspective on geology and how it is used, but much of the material might well be considered optional for an introductory course and not vital to your understanding of major topics. Many of the “In Greater Depth” boxes are meant to be challenging—do not be discouraged if you need your instructor’s help in understanding them.

WHO NEEDS GEOLOGY? Geology, the scientific study of Earth, benefits you and everyone else on this planet. The clothes you wear, the radio you listen to, the food you eat, the car you drive exist because of what geologists have discovered about Earth. Earth can also be a killer. You might have survived an earthquake, flood, or other natural disaster thanks to action taken based on what scientists have learned about these hazards. Before getting into important scientific concepts, we will look at some of the ways geology has benefited you and will continue to do so.

Supplying Things We Need We depend on the Earth for energy resources and the raw materials we need for survival, comfort, and pleasure. Every

Read through the appropriate chapter before going to class. Reread it after class, concentrating on the topics covered in the lecture or discussion. Especially concentrate on concepts that you do not fully understand. Return to previously covered chapters to refresh your memory on necessary background material. Use the end of chapter material for review. The Summary is just that, a summary. Don’t expect to get through an exam by only reading the summary and not the rest of the chapter. Use the Terms to Remember to see if you can visually or verbally associate the appropriate concept with each term. Answer the Testing Your Knowledge questions in writing. Be honest with yourself. If you are fuzzy on an answer, return to that portion of the chapter and reread it. Remember that these are just a sampling of the kind of questions that might be on an exam. Geology, like most science, builds on previously acquired knowledge. You must retain what you learn from chapter to chapter. If you forget or did not learn significant concepts covered early in your course, you will find it frustrating later in the course. (To verify this, turn to chapter 5 and you will probably find it intimidating; but if you build on your knowledge as you progress through your course, the chapter material will fall nicely into place.) Get acquainted with the book’s website at www.mhhe.com/ carlson9e. You will find the online quizzes, animations, web exercises, and interactive items useful for review and in-depth learning. Be curious. Geologists are motivated by a sense of discovery. We hope you will be too.

manufactured object relies on Earth’s resources—even a pencil (figure 1.1). The Earth, at work for billions of years, has localized material into concentrations that humans can mine or extract. By learning how the Earth works and how different kinds of substances are distributed and why, we can intelligently search for metals, sources of energy, and gems. Even maintaining a supply of sand and gravel for construction purposes depends on geology. The economic systems of Western civilization currently depend on abundant and cheap energy sources. Nearly all our vehicles and machinery are powered by petroleum, coal, or nuclear power and depend on energy sources concentrated unevenly in the Earth. The U.S. economy in particular is geared to petroleum as a cheap source of energy. During the past few decades, Americans have used up most of their country’s known petroleum reserves, which took nature hundreds of

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Zinc Petroleum

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aluminum, 9 kilograms copper, 5 kilograms each for lead and zinc, 3 kilograms manganese, and 11 kilograms other metals. Americans’ yearly per capita consumption of energy resources is over 8,000 kilograms (17,000 pounds); of this, 3,500 kilograms is petroleum, 2,300 kilograms coal, 2,250 kilograms natural gas, and .02 kilograms uranium.

Brass

Protecting the Environment

Copper

Iron

Machinery to shape pencil

Paint pigment—from various minerals

Clay

Graphite

FIGURE 1.1 Earth’s resources necessary to make a wooden pencil.

millions of years to store in the Earth. The United States, and most other industrialized nations, are now heavily dependent on imported oil. When fuel prices jump, people who are not aware that petroleum is a nonrenewable resource become upset and are quick to blame oil companies, politicians, and oil-producing countries. (The Gulf Wars of 1991 and 2003 were at least partially fought because of the industrialized nations’ petroleum requirements.) Finding more of this diminishing resource will require more money and increasingly sophisticated knowledge of geology. Although many people are not aware of it, we face similar problems with diminishing resources of other materials, notably metals such as iron, aluminum, copper, and tin, each of which has been concentrated in a particular environment by the action of the Earth’s geologic forces. Just how much of our resources do we use? According to the Mineral Information Institute, for every person living in the United States, 18,000 kilograms (40,000 pounds; for metric conversions, go to appendix E) of resources, not including energy resources are mined annually. The amount of each commodity mined per person per year is 4,400 kilograms stone, 3,500 kilograms sand and gravel, 325 kilograms limestone for cement, 160 kilograms clays, 165 kilograms salt, 760 kilograms other nonmetals, 545 kilograms iron, 19 kilograms

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Our demands for more energy and metals have, in the past, led us to extract them with little regard for effects on the balance of nature within the Earth and therefore on us, Earth’s residents. Mining of coal, if done carelessly, for example, can release acids into water supplies. Understanding geology can help us lessen or prevent damage to the environment—just as it can be used to find the resources in the first place. The environment is further threatened because these are nonrenewable resources. Petroleum and metal deposits do not grow back after being harvested. As demands for these commodities increase, so does the pressure to disregard the ecological damage caused by the extraction of the remaining deposits. Problems involving petroleum illustrate this. Oil companies employ geologists to discover new oil fields, while the public and government depend on other geologists to assess the potential environmental impact of petroleum’s removal from the ground, the transportation of petroleum (see box 1.1), and disposal of any toxic wastes from petroleum products.

Avoiding Geologic Hazards Almost everyone is, to some extent, at risk to natural hazards, such as earthquakes or hurricanes. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, floods, and tsunamis are the most dangerous geologic hazards. Each is discussed in detail in appropriate chapters. Here, we will give some examples to illustrate the role that geology can play in mitigating geologic hazards. Prior to December 26, 2004, “tsunami” may not have been part of your vocabulary. As of that date, the world became sadly aware of the enormous destructive power of tsunamis (huge ocean waves, usually caused by displacement of the sea floor). Earth’s largest earthquake in forty years took place off the coast of northern Indonesia (figure 1.2). Its shaking caused widespread destruction in Banda Aceh province and would have been a major disaster in its own right. But the earthquake was overshadowed by the tsunamis that followed. A tsunami, caused by the earthquake, began forming when a large segment of sea floor was displaced along a fault. (Earthquakes and tsunamis are fully explained in chapter 7.) The energy transferred into ocean waves was enormous. Tsunamis radiated in all directions from the displaced sea floor. Huge waves crashed into the Indonesian coastline almost immediately, adding thousands to the death toll from the earthquake. Other waves traveled at the speed of a jetliner to the distant shores of the Indian Ocean rim countries and to the east coast of Africa. As explained in chapter 7, in the deep ocean, a tsunami has a small wave height and

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CHAPTER 1

Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts

E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 1 . 1

Delivering Alaskan Oil—The Environment

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n the 1960s, geologists discovered oil beneath the coast of the Arctic Ocean on Alaska’s North Slope at Prudhoe Bay (box figure 1). It is now the United States’ largest oil field. Thanks to the Trans-Alaska pipeline, completed in 1977, Alaska has supplied as much as 20% of the United States’ domestic oil. In the late 1970s before Alaskan oil began to flow, the United States was importing almost half its petroleum, at a loss of billions of dollars per year to the national economy. (As of 1997, the United States imports more than half of the petroleum it uses, despite Alaskan oil in the market.) The drain on the country’s economy and the increasing cost of energy can be major causes of inflation, lower industrial productivity, unemployment, and the erosion of standards of living. At its peak, over 2 million barrels of oil a day flowed from the Arctic oil fields.This means that over $10 billion a year that would have been spent importing foreign oil is kept in the American economy. Despite its important role in the American economy, some considered the Alaska pipeline and the use of oil tankers as unacceptable threats to the area’s ecology. Geologists with the U.S. Geological Survey conducted the official environmental impact investigation of the proposed pipeline route in 1972. After an exhaustive study, they recommended against its construction, partly because of the hazards to oil tankers and partly because of the geologic hazards of the pipeline route. Their report was overruled. The Congress and the president of the United States exempted the pipeline from laws that require a favorable environmental impact statement before a major project can begin.

VERSUS

the Economy

The 1,250-kilometer-long pipeline crosses regions of icesaturated, frozen ground and major earthquake-prone mountain ranges that geologists regard as serious hazards to the structure. Building anything on frozen ground creates problems. The pipeline presented enormous engineering problems. If the pipeline were placed on the ground, the hot oil flowing through it could melt the frozen ground. On a slope, mud could easily slide and rupture the pipeline. Careful (and costly) engineering minimized these hazards. Much of the pipeline is elevated above the ground (box figure 2). Radiators conduct heat out of the structure. In some places, refrigeration equipment in the ground protects against melting. Records indicate that a strong earthquake can be expected every few years in the earthquake belts crossed by the pipeline. An earthquake could rupture a pipeline—especially a conventional pipe as in the original design. When the Alaska pipeline was built, however, in several places sections were specially jointed and placed on slider beams to allow the pipe to shift as much as 6 meters without rupturing. In 2002, a major earthquake (magnitude 7.9—the same strength as the May 2008 earthquake in China, described in chapter 16, that killed over 87,000 people) caused the pipeline to shift several meters, resulting in minor damage to the structure, but the pipe did not rupture (box figure 3). The original estimated cost of the pipeline was $900 million, but the final cost was $7.7 billion, making it the costliest privately

AREA OF MAP

Prudhoe Bay

OIL PIPELINE Fairbanks

Valdez

Pt. Barrow Native lands

Fairba Anchorage

100 KM

ARCTIC OCEAN Prudhoe Bay 1002 Area

NPRA

Northern margin of Brooks Range

Wilderness Area

ANWR

DA S CANA TATE ED S UNIT

OIL PIPELINE

BOX 1.1 ■ FIGURE 1 Map of northern Alaska showing locations and relative sizes of the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska (NPRA) and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR). “1002 Area” is the portion of ANWR being proposed for oil exploitation. Current oil production is taking place at Prudhoe Bay. Source: U.S.G.S. Fact Sheet 045-02 and U.S.G.S. Fact Sheet 014-03

BOX 1.1 ■ FIGURE 2

travels rapidly—it is not noticed by people on boats. As it propagates into shallower water, it slows down and the wave heights get larger. When the tsunamis reached Thailand, India, Sri Lanka, and eight other countries, waves as high as 14 meters (40 feet) rapidly inundated coastal communities. When the seas returned to normal, over an estimated 220,000 people were

dead and millions injured. The damage to homes and property was incalculable. To see video clips from the tsunami, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nLaZjOJpdJA. The tsunami was among the worst natural disasters in recorded history. What made it truly exceptional was the death and destruction in so many countries over such a large seg-

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The Alaska pipeline. Photo by David Applegate

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financed construction project in history. The redesigning and construction that minimized the potential for an environmental disaster were among the reasons for the increased cost. Some spills from the pipeline have occurred. In January 1981, 5,000 barrels of oil were lost when a valve ruptured. In 2001, a man fired a rifle bullet into the pipeline, causing it to rupture and spill 7,000 barrels of oil into a forested area. In March 2006, a British Petroleum Company (BP) worker discovered a 201,000 gallon spill from that company’s feeder pipes to the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. This was the largest oil spill on the North Slope to date. Subsequent inspection by BP of their feeder pipes revealed much more corrosion than they had expected.

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As a result they made a very costly scaling back of their oil production in order to replace pipes and make major repairs. The Trans-Alaska pipeline was designed to last 30 years. Considerable work and money is going into upgrades that will keep it functioning beyond its projected lifetime. When the tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground in 1989, over 240,000 barrels of crude oil were spilled into the waters of Alaska’s Prince William Sound. It was the worst-ever oil spill in U.S. waters. The spill, with its devastating effects on wildlife and the fishing industry, dramatically highlighted the conflicts between maintaining the energy demands of the American economy and conservation of the environment. The 1972 environmental impact statement had singled out marine oil spills as being the greatest threat to the environment. Based on statistical studies of tanker accidents worldwide, it gave the frequency with which large oil spills could be expected. The Exxon Valdez spill should not have been a surprise. As the Prudhoe Bay oil field production diminishes, the United States is becoming even more dependent on foreign oil than it was in the 1970s. Before the opening of North Slope production, the country was importing just under half of petroleum used. In 2008, Americans imported around 63% of the oil they consumed. One of the “fixes” being proposed for becoming less dependent on foreign oil is to allow exploitation of oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge on Alaska’s North Slope. The rhetoric in the debate is more selfserving or emotional than scientific. At one extreme are those who feel that any significant, potential oil field should be developed without regard to environmental damage. At the other extreme are those who instinctively assume that any intrusion on an ecological environment is unacceptable. We can hope that the enormous amount of data from the Alaskan pipeline and the drilling of the Prudhoe Bay oil field (which has been producing decreasing amounts of oil with ongoing pumping) will be used to help transcend the politics. Perhaps an impartial environmental impact investigation should be done even though no longer required by law.

Additional Resources The Alyeska pipeline company’s site. •

BOX 1.1 ■ FIGURE 3

www.alyeska-pipe.com/

U.S. Geological Survey fact sheet on the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. •

http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2002/fs-045-02/

The Alaska pipeline where it was displaced along the Denali fault during the 2002 earthquake. The pipeline is fastened to teflon shoes, which are sitting on slider beams. Go to http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2003/fs014-03/pipeline.html for more information. Alyeska Pipeline Service Company/U.S. Geologic Survey

Geotimes article on the 2006 oil spill. Links at the end of this and other articles lead to older articles published by the magazine.

ment of the Earth. Could the death toll have been reduced through knowledge of geology? Most definitely. At one beach resort in Thailand, a ten-year-old English schoolgirl on holiday with her family noticed that the sea began withdrawing. A few weeks earlier her geography class had learned about tsunamis. She knew that a drop in sea level often precedes the

arrival of the first giant wave. She told her mother and they then spread the alarm throughout the resort. Everyone ran to higher ground. This was the only part of this segment of the Thai coastline where there were no casualties. The girl’s knowledge of tsunamis saved around a hundred lives. Thousands of people died elsewhere because they had no idea what

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72∞0'0"E

78∞0'0"E

84∞0'0"E

90∞0'0"E

96∞0'0"E

102∞0'0"E

108∞0'0"E

114∞0'0"E

120∞0'0"E

China Rajasthan Sind

Bangladesh

India

Myanmar

Bangladesh

Thailand Somalia

24∞0'0"N

Maldives

Kenya Indonesia

Tanzania

Taiwan

West Bengal

Myanmar

Gujarat

Vietnam

Orissa

Laos

Legend

India

National Capital

Arakan (Rakhine)

Main coastal cities

Affected coast by Tsunami

Cuddalore (India)

Estimated tsunami inundation zone

18∞0'0"N

Northern

Rangoon

Earthquake epicenters

Thailand

Irrawaddy

Northeastern

Areas under 20 meters elevation

Central

and within 5 km from the coastal line

Pondicherr

Provinces

Land Cover Legend Cropland and plantation Forest Shrub

Bangkok

Cambodia

Madras

Urban area 12∞0'0"N

2500 km from Main Epicenter

Macau

Mandalay

Daman and Diu Affected Countries orange Daman in and Diu

18∞0'0"N

24∞0'0"N

Tenasserim

Andaman & Nicobar

Grassland

12∞0'0"N

Phnom Penh

Cuddalore

Tamil Nadu

Andaman & Nicobar

Sri Lanka

Southern

Bare soil Swamp Water body

Colombo

Andaman & Nicobar

Aceh (Indonesia)

Yala

6∞0'0"N

Banda Aceh

Maldives

Sabah Temburong Muara/Seria/Tutong

Malaysia

Aceh

Sarawak

Singapore

Riau

Sumatera Utara

Sumatera Barat

Strongest Epicenter Sumatera Barat Date: 26/12/2004 Time: 00:58:53 UTC Location:3.26N 95.82E Magnitude:8.9

Malaysia

Kuala Lumpur

Sumatera Utara

0∞0'0"

6∞0'0"N

Pinang

Kalimantan Timur

Indonesia

Samarinda

Meulaboh

Jambi Sumatera Selatan

Kalimantan Tengah Sumatera Selatan

0∞0'0"

Palu

Balikpapan

Kalimantan Selatan Kalimantan Selatan

Bengkulu

Jakarta

6∞0'0"S

Jawa Barat 72∞0'0"E

78∞0'0"E

84∞0'0"E

90∞0'0"E

96∞0'0"E

102∞0'0"E

108∞0'0"E

6∞0'0"S

Surabaja 114∞0'0"E

120∞0'0"E

A

The earthquake and tsunami of December 26, 2004. (A) Map of the Indian Ocean region showing the epicenter of the quake and the countries and shorelines where people were killed. Figure 16.21 has a map showing travel time and wave height. Map modified from one by the European Commission Joint Research Center.

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FIGURE 1.2

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B

FIGURE 1.2 (CONTINUED) (B) Marina beach in Madras, India inundated by the tsunami. Photo B © AFP/Getty Images

was going on when the water withdrew and then began rising. Many actually moved closer to the shoreline to see what was going on. The Pacific Rim countries, where tsunamis are more common, have a sophisticated warning system that alerts all coastal regions after a submarine earthquake takes place and a tsunami is likely. For example, if an earthquake produces a tsunami in Alaska, or Chile, it will take hours to reach Hawaii. This gives plenty of time for threatened Hawaiian beaches to be evacuated. A similar early warning system is being put in place for the Indian Ocean. But even without a formal warning system in place, it is amazing that, in this age of instantaneous worldwide communication, the death toll was so high. While the Indonesian coast was being ravaged there was little, if any, communication to India, Sri Lanka, or other distant countries about a tsunami, which would take hours for its transoceanic crossing. Volcanic eruptions, like earthquakes and tsunamis, are products of Earth’s sudden release of energy. They can be dangerous; however, their biggest dangers are not what most

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people think. Neither falling volcanic debris nor lava flows are as big a killer as pyroclastic flows or volcanic mudflows. As described in the volcano chapter, a pyroclastic flow is a hot, turbulent mixture of expanding gases and volcanic ash that flows rapidly down the side of a volcano. Pyroclastic flows often reach speeds of over 100 kilometers per hour and are extremely destructive. A mudflow is a slurry of water and rock debris that flows down a stream channel. Mount Pinatubo’s eruption in 1991 was the second largest volcanic eruption of the twentieth century (box 1.2). Geologists successfully predicted the climactic eruption (figure 1.3) in time for Philippine officials to evacuate people living near the mountain. Tens of thousands of lives were saved from pyroclastic flows and mudflows. By contrast, one of the worst volcanic disasters of the 1900s took place after a relatively small eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia in 1985. Hot volcanic debris blasted out of the volcano and caused part of the ice and snow capping the peak to melt. The water and loose debris turned into a mudflow. The mudflow overwhelmed the town of Armero at the base of

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CHAPTER 1

Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts

E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 1 . 2

The 1991 Eruption of Mount Pinatubo— Geologists Save Thousands of Lives

W

hen minor steam eruptions began in April 1991, Mount Pinatubo was a vegetation-covered mountain that had last erupted 400 years earlier. As the eruptions intensified, Filipino geologists thought a major eruption might be developing. Geologic field work completed in earlier years indicated that prehistoric eruptions of the volcano tended to be large and violent. Under a previous arrangement for cooperation, American geologists joined their Philippine colleagues and deployed portable seismographs to detect and locate small earthquakes within the volcano and tiltmeters to measure the bulging of the volcano. These and other data were analyzed by state-of-the-art computer programs. Fortunately, it took two months for the volcano to reach its climactic eruption, allowing time for the scientists to work with local officials and develop emergency evacuation plans. Geologists had to educate the officials about the principal hazards—mudflows and pyroclastic flows. In June, explosions, ash eruptions, and minor pyroclastic flows indicated that magma (molten rock) was not far underground and a major eruption was imminent. Some 80,000 people were evacuated from the vicinity of the volcano. The U.S. military evacuated and later abandoned Clark Air Force Base, which was buried by ash. The climactic eruption occurred on June 15, when huge explosions blasted the top off the volcano and resulted in large pyroclastic flows (figure 1.3). Volcanic debris was propelled high into the atmosphere. A typhoon 50 kilometers away brought heavy rains, which mixed with the ash and resulted in numerous, large mudflows.

The estimated volume of magma that erupted from the climactic eruption was 5 cubic kilometers, making it the world’s largest eruption since 1917. Its effects extended beyond the Philippines. Fine volcanic dust and gas blasted into the high atmosphere were carried around the world and would take years to settle out. For a while, we got more colorful sunsets worldwide. Because of the filtering effect for solar radiation, worldwide average temperature was estimated to drop by 0.5°C for two years, more than countering the long-term warming trend of the Earth’s climate. The death toll from the eruption was 374. Of these, 83 were killed in mudflows. Most of the rest died because roofs collapsed from the weight of ash. In addition, 358 people died from illness related to the eruptions. More than 108,000 homes were partly or totally destroyed. The death toll probably would have been in the tens of thousands had the prediction and warning system not been so successful. Although Mount Pinatubo is quiet now, lives and property are still being lost to mudflows, more than a decade after the big eruption.

Additional Resources Volcano World The site contains a wealth of information on volcanoes, including Mount Pinatubo. •

http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/

In the Path of a Killer Volcano is a first-rate videotape produced for the Nova television series. Available from Films for the Humanities and Science, Princeton, New Jersey.

FIGURE 1.3 The major eruption of Mount Pinatubo on June 15, 1991, as seen from Clark Air Force Base, Philippines. Photo by Robert Lapointe, U.S. Air Force

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answer these questions as well as understand how other kinds of landscapes formed.

EARTH SYSTEMS

FIGURE 1.4 Most of the town of Armero, Colombia and its residents are buried beneath up to 8 meters of mud from the 1985 mudflow. Photo © Jacques Langevin/Corbis

the volcano, killing 23,000 people (figure 1.4). Colombian geologists had previously predicted such a mudflow could occur and published maps showing the location and extent of expected mudflows. The actual mudflow that wiped out the town matched that shown on the geologists’ map almost exactly. Unfortunately, government officials had ignored the map and the geologists’ report; otherwise, the tragedy could have been averted.

Understanding Our Surroundings It is a uniquely human trait to want to understand the world around us. Most of us get satisfaction from understanding our cultural and family histories, how governments work or do not work. Music and art help link our feelings to that which we have discovered through our life. The natural sciences involve understanding the physical and biological universe in which we live. Most scientists get great satisfaction from their work because, besides gaining greater knowledge from what has been discovered by scientists before them, they can find new truths about the world around them. Even after a basic geology course, you can use what you learn to explain and be able to appreciate what you see around you, especially when you travel. If, for instance, you were traveling through the Canadian Rockies, you might see the scene in this chapter’s opening photo and wonder how the landscape came to be. You might wonder: (1) why there are layers in the rock exposed in the cliffs; (2) why the peaks are so jagged; (3) why there is a glacier in a valley carved into the mountain; (4) why this is part of a mountain belt that extends northward and southward for thousands of kilometers; (5) why there are mountain ranges here and not in the central part of the continent. After completing a course in physical geology, you should be able to

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The awesome energy released by an earthquake or volcano is a product of forces within the Earth that move firm rock. Earthquakes and volcanoes are only two consequences of the ongoing changing of Earth. Ocean basins open and close. Mountain ranges rise and are worn down to plains through slow, but very effective, processes. Studying how Earth works can be as exciting as watching a great theatrical performance. The purpose of this book is to help you understand how and why those changes take place. More precisely, we concentrate on physical geology, which is the division of geology concerned with Earth materials, changes in the surface and interior of the Earth, and the dynamic forces that cause those changes. Put another way, physical geology is about how Earth works. But to understand geology, we must also understand how the solid Earth interacts with water, air, and living organisms. For this reason, it is useful to think of Earth as being part of a system. A system is an arbitrarily isolated portion of the universe that can be analyzed to see how its components interrelate. The solar system is a part of the much larger universe. The solar system includes the Sun, planets, the moons orbiting planets, and asteroids (see chapter 22). The Earth system is a small part of the larger solar system, but it is, of course, very important to us. The Earth system has its components, which can be thought of as its subsystems. We refer to these as Earth systems (plural). These systems, or “spheres,” are the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the biosphere, and the geosphere. You, of course, are familiar with the atmosphere, the gases that envelop Earth. The hydrosphere is the water on or near Earth’s surface. The hydrosphere includes the oceans, rivers, lakes, and glaciers of the world. Earth is unique among the planets in that two-thirds of its surface is covered by oceans. The biosphere is all of the living or once-living material on Earth. The geosphere, or solid Earth system, is the rock and other inorganic Earth material that make up the bulk of the planet. This book concentrates on the geosphere; to understand geology, however, we must understand the interaction between the solid Earth and the other systems (spheres). The Indian Ocean tsunami involved the interaction of the geosphere and the hydrosphere. The faulting of the sea floor and the earthquake took place in the geosphere. Energy was transferred into giant waves in the hydrosphere. The hydrosphere and geosphere again interacted when waves inundated distant shores. All four of the Earth systems interact with each other to produce soil, such as we find in farms, gardens, and forests. The solid “dirt” is a mixture of decomposed and disintegrated rock and organic matter. The organic matter is from decayed plants—from the biosphere. The geosphere contributes the rock that has broken down while exposed to air (the atmosphere)

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CHAPTER 1

Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts

I N G R E AT E R D E P T H 1 . 3

Geology as a Career

I

f someone says that she or he is a geologist, that information tells you almost nothing about what he or she does. This is because geology encompasses a broad spectrum of disciplines. Perhaps what most geologists have in common is that they were attracted to the outdoors. Most of us enjoyed hiking, skiing, climbing, or other outdoor activities before getting interested in geology. We like having one of our laboratories being Earth itself. Geology is a collection of disciplines. When someone decides to become a geologist, she or he is selecting one of those disciplines. The choice is very large. Some are financially lucrative; others may be less so but might be more satisfying. Following are a few of the areas in which geologists work. Petroleum geologists work at trying to determine where existing oil fields might be expanded or where new oil fields might exist. A petroleum geologist can make over $90,000 a year working on wave-lashed drilling platforms in the North Sea off the coast of Norway. Mining geologists might be concerned with trying to determine where to extend an existing mine to get more ore or trying to find new concentrations of ore that are potentially commercially viable. Environmental geologists might work at mitigating pollution or preventing degradation of the environment. Marine geologists are concerned with understanding the sea floor. Some go down thousands of meters in submersibles to study geologic features on the sea floor. Hydrogeologists study surface and underground water and assist in either increasing our supply of clean water or isolating or cleaning up polluted water. Glaciologists work in Antarctica studying the dynamics of glacier movement or collecting ice cores through drilling to determine climate changes that have taken place over the past 100,000 years or more. Other geologists who work in Antarctica might be deciphering the history of a mountain range, working on skis and living in tents (box figure 1). Volcanologists sometimes get killed or injured while trying to collect gases or samples of lava from a volcano. Some sedimentologists scuba dive in places like the Bahamas, skewering lobsters for lunch while they collect sediment samples. One geologist was the only scientist to work on the moon. Geophysicists interpret earthquake waves or gravity measurements to determine the nature of Earth’s interior. Seismologists are geophysicists who specialize in earthquakes. Engineering geologists determine whether rock or soil upon which structures (dams, bridges, buildings) are built can safely support those structures. Paleontologists study fossils and learn about when extinct creatures lived and the environment in which they existed. Teaching is an important field in which geologists work. Some teach at the college level and are usually involved in research as well. Demand is increasing for geologists to teach Earth science (which includes meteorology, oceanography, astronomy as well as

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BOX 1.3 ■ FIGURE 1 Geologists investigating the Latady Mountains, Antarctica. Photo by C. C. Plummer

geology) in high schools. More and more secondary schools are adding Earth science to their curriculum and need qualified teachers. Many geologists enjoy the challenge and adventure of field work, but some work comfortably behind computer screens or in laboratories with complex analytical equipment. Usually, a geologist engages in a combination of field work, lab work, and computer analysis. Geologists tend to be happy with their jobs. In surveys of job satisfaction in a number of professions, geology rates near or at the top. A geologist is likely to be a generalist who solves problems by bringing in information from beyond his or her specialty. Chemistry, physics, and life sciences are often used to solve problems. Problems geologists work on tend to be ones in which there are few clues. So the geologist works like a detective, piecing together the available data to form a plausible solution. In fact, some geologists work at solving crimes—forensic geology is a branch of geology dedicated to criminal investigations. Not all people who major in geology become professional geologists. Physicians, lawyers, and businesspeople who have majored in geology have felt that the training in how geologists solve problems has benefited their careers.

Additional Resource For more information, go to the American Geological Institute’s career site at •

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and water (the hydrosphere). Air and water also occupy pore space between the solid particles.

AN OVERVIEW OF PHYSICAL GEOLOGY—IMPORTANT CONCEPTS The remainder of this chapter is an overview of physical geology that should provide a framework for most of the material in this book. Although the concepts probably are totally new to you, it is important that you comprehend what follows. You may want to reread portions of this chapter while studying later chapters when you need to expand or reinforce your comprehension of this basic material. You will especially want to refresh your understanding of plate tectonics when you learn about the plate tectonic setting for the origin of rocks in chapters 11 through 15. The Earth can be visualized as a giant machine driven by two engines, one internal and the other external. Both are heat engines, devices that convert heat energy into mechanical energy. Two simple heat engines are shown in figure 1.5. An automobile is powered by a heat engine. When gasoline is ignited in the cylinders, the resulting hot gases expand, driving pistons to the far end of cylinders. In this way, the heat energy of the expanding gas has been converted to the mechanical energy of the moving pistons, then transferred to the wheels, where the energy is put to work moving the car. Earth’s internal heat engine is driven by heat moving from the hot interior of the Earth toward the cooler exterior. Moving plates and earthquakes are products of this heat engine. Earth’s external heat engine is driven by solar power. Heat from the Sun provides the energy for circulating the atmosphere and oceans. Water, especially from the oceans,

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evaporates because of solar heating. When moist air cools, we get rain or snow. Over long periods of time, moisture at the Earth’s surface helps rock disintegrate. Water washing down hillsides and flowing in streams loosens and carries away the rock particles. In this way, mountains originally raised by Earth’s internal forces are worn away by processes driven by the external heat engine. We will look at how the Earth’s heat engines work and show how some of the major topics of physical geology are related to the internal and surficial (on the Earth’s surface) processes powered by the heat engines.

Internal Processes: How the Earth’s Internal Heat Engine Works The Earth’s internal heat engine works because hot, buoyant material deep within the Earth moves slowly upward toward the cool surface and cold, denser material moves downward. Visualize a vat of hot wax, heated from below (figure 1.6). As the wax immediately above the fire gets hotter, it expands, becomes less dense (that is, a given volume of the material will weigh less), and rises. Wax at the top of the vat loses heat to the air, cools, contracts, becomes denser, and sinks. A similar process takes place in the Earth’s interior. Rock that is deep within the Earth and is very hot rises slowly toward the surface, while rock that has cooled near the surface is denser and sinks downward. Instinctively, we don’t want to believe that rock can flow like hot wax. However, experiments have shown that under the right conditions, rocks are capable of being molded (like wax or putty). Deeply buried rock that is hot and under high pressure can deform, like taffy or putty. But the deformation takes place very slowly. If we were somehow able to strike a rapid blow to the deeply buried rock with a hammer, it would fracture, just as rock at Earth’s surface would.

Expanding steam

Teapot

Spinning pinwheel (mechanical energy)

Heat energy A

Wax cools down, contracts, and sinks

Wax heats up, expands, and rises

B

FIGURE 1.5

FIGURE 1.6

Two examples of simple heat engines. (A) A “lava lamp.” Blobs are heated from below and rise. Blobs cool off at the top of the lamp and sink. (B) A pinwheel held over steam. Heat energy is converted to mechanical energy. Photo by C. C. Plummer

Movement of wax due to density differences caused by heating and cooling (shown schematically).

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Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts

Earth’s Interior

trated through the crust, so our concept of the Earth’s interior is based on indirect evidence. The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are relatively rigid. Collectively, they make up the lithosphere. (To help you remember terms, the meanings of commonly used prefixes and suffixes are given in appendix G. For example, lith means “rock” in Greek. You will find lith to be part of many geologic terms.) The uppermost mantle underlying the lithosphere, called the asthenosphere, is soft and therefore flows more readily than the underlying mantle. It provides a “lubricating” layer over which the lithosphere moves (asthenos means “weak” in Greek). Where hot mantle material wells upward, it will uplift the lithosphere. Where the lithosphere is coldest and densest, it will sink down through the asthenosphere and into the deeper mantle, just as the wax does in figure 1.6. The effect of this internal heat engine on the crust is of great significance to geology. The forces generated inside the Earth, called tectonic forces, cause deformation of rock as well as vertical and horizontal movement of portions of the Earth’s crust. The existence of mountain ranges indicates that tectonic forces are stronger than gravitational

As described in more detail in chapter 2, the mantle is the most voluminous of Earth’s three major concentric zones (see figure 1.7). Although the mantle is solid rock, parts of it flow slowly, generally upward or downward, depending on whether it is hotter or colder than adjacent mantle. The other two zones are the crust and the core. The crust of the Earth is analogous to the skin on an apple. The thickness of the crust is insignificant compared to the whole Earth. We have direct access to only the crust, and not much of the crust at that. We are like microbes crawling on an apple, without the ability to penetrate its skin. Because it is our home and we depend on it for resources, we are concerned more with the crust than with the inaccessible mantle and core. Two major types of crust are oceanic crust and continental crust. The crust under the oceans is much thinner. It is made of rock that is somewhat denser than the rock that underlies the continents. The lower parts of the crust and the entire mantle are inaccessible to direct observation. No mine or oil well has pene-

Continental crust

Oceanic crust

0 Mantle

100 km

Crust Uppermost mantle

Asthenosphere (par t of mantle)

here

CHAPTER 1

Lithosp

14

200 km Mantle continues downward

Inner core (solid)

70

6,3

km

2,9

Outer core (liquid)

00

km

Mantle

Crust

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FIGURE 1.7 Cross section through the Earth. Expanded section shows the relationship between the two types of crust, the lithosphere and the asthenosphere, and the mantle. The crust ranges from 5 to 75 kilometers thick. Photo by NASA

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TABLE 1.1

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Three Types of Plate Boundaries

Boundary

What Takes Place

Result

Divergent

Plates move apart

Convergent

Plates move toward each other

Transform

Plates move sideways past each other

Creation of new ocean floor with submarine volcanoes; mid-oceanic ridge; small to moderate earthquakes Destruction of ocean floor; creation and growth of mountain range with volcanoes; subduction zone; Earth’s greatest earthquakes and tsunamis No creation or destruction of crust; small to large earthquakes

forces. (Mount Everest, the world’s highest peak, is made of rock that formed beneath an ancient sea.) Mountain ranges are built over extended periods, as portions of the Earth’s crust are squeezed, stretched, and raised. Most tectonic forces are mechanical forces. Some of the energy from these forces is put to work deforming rock, bending and breaking it, and raising mountain ranges. The mechanical energy may be stored (an earthquake is a sudden release of stored mechanical energy) or converted to heat energy (rock may melt, resulting in volcanic eruptions). The working of the machinery of the Earth is elegantly demonstrated by plate tectonics.

The Theory of Plate Tectonics From time to time a theory emerges within a science that revolutionizes that field. (As explained in box 1.4, a theory in science is a concept that has been highly tested and in all likelihood is true. In common usage, the word theory is used for what scientists call a hypothesis—that is, a tentative answer to a question or solution to a problem.) The theory of plate tectonics is as important to geology as the theory of relativity is to physics, the atomic theory to chemistry, or evolution to biology. The plate tectonic theory, currently accepted by virtually all geologists, is a unifying theory that accounts for many seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Some of the disparate phenomena that plate tectonics explains are where and why we get earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain belts, deep ocean trenches, and midoceanic ridges. Plate tectonics was seriously proposed as a hypothesis in the early 1960s, though the idea was based on earlier work— notably, the hypothesis of continental drift. In the chapters on igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks, as in the chapter on earthquakes, we will expand on what you learn about the theory here to explain the origin of some rocks and why volcanoes and earthquakes occur. Chapter 4 is devoted to plate tectonics and will show that what you learn in many other chapters is interrelated and explained by plate tectonic theory. Plate tectonics regards the lithosphere as broken into plates that are in motion (see figure 1.8). The plates, which are much like segments of the cracked shell on a boiled egg, move relative to one another along plate boundaries, sliding upon the underlying asthenosphere. Much of what we observe in the rock record can be explained by the type of motion that takes

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place along plate boundaries. Plate boundaries are classified into three types based on the type of motion occurring between the adjacent plates. These are summarized in table 1.1.

Divergent Boundaries The first type of plate boundary, a divergent boundary, involves two plates that are moving apart from each other. Most divergent boundaries coincide with the crests of submarine mountain ranges, called mid-oceanic ridges (figure 1.8). The mid-Atlantic ridge is a classic, well-developed example. Motion along a midoceanic ridge causes small to moderate earthquakes. Although most divergent boundaries present today are located within oceanic plates, a divergent boundary typically initiates within a continent. It begins when a split, or rift, in the continent is caused either by extensional (stretching) forces within the continent or by the upwelling of hot asthenosphere from the mantle below (figure 1.9A). Either way, the continental plate pulls apart and thins. Initially, a narrow valley is formed. Fissures extend into a magma chamber. Magma (molten rock) flows into the fissures and may erupt onto the floor of the rift. With continued separation, the valley deepens, the crust beneath the valley sinks, and a narrow sea floor is formed (Figure 1.9B). Underlying the new sea floor is rock that has been newly created by underwater eruptions and solidification of magma in fissures. Rock that forms when magma solidifies is igneous rock. The igneous rock that solidifies on the sea floor and in the fissures becomes oceanic crust. As the two sides of the split continent continue to move apart, new fissures develop, magma fills them, and more oceanic crust is formed. As the ocean basin widens, the central zone where new crust is created remains relatively high. This is the mid-oceanic ridge that will remain as the divergent boundary as the continents continue to move apart and the ocean basin widens (figure 1.9C). A mid-oceanic ridge is higher than the deep ocean floor (figure 1.9C) because the rocks, being hotter at the ridge, are less dense. A rift valley, bounded by tensional cracks, runs along the crest of the ridge. The magma in the chamber below the ridge that squeezes into fissures comes from partial melting of the underlying asthenosphere. Continued pulling apart of the ridge crest develops new cracks, and the process of filling and cracking continues indefinitely. Thus, new oceanic crust is continuously created at a divergent boundary. All of the mantle material does not

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45

90

180

135

60

Eurasian plate

Him

ala

30

Philippine Sea plate

ya

Arabian plate

Pacific plate 0

African plate Indian-Australian plate

30

60

Antarctic Antarctic plate plate

45

90

135

180 Ridge

Transform boundary

Fault

Ridge

FIGURE 1.8 Plates of the world and the three types of plate boundaries. Arrows indicate direction of plate motion.

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135

90

45

Eurasian plate 60

North American plate

Juan de Fuca plate

San Andreas fault

Caribbean plate

Pacific plate

30

African plate

Mid - A tlan ti c

Cocos plate

plate 30

Eas

t

Pacific

American

ins

Peru-Chile Trench

Mounta

Nazca plate

Ridge

s

de

An

Ris

e

South

Pacific plate

Scotia plate

60

Antarctic plate

Convergent 135

90 boundary

45

Divergent 0 boundary

17

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CHAPTER 1

Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts

melt—a solid residue remains under the newly created crust. New crust and underlying solid mantle make up the lithosphere that moves away from the ridge crest, traveling like the top of a conveyor belt. The rate of motion is generally 1 to 18 centimeters per year (approximately the growth rate of a fingernail), slow in human terms but quite fast by geologic standards. The top of a plate may be composed exclusively of oceanic crust or might include a continent or part of a continent. For example, if you live on the North American plate, you are riding westward relative to Europe because the plate’s divergent boundary is along the mid-oceanic ridge in the North Atlantic

Continental crust

Ocean (figure 1.8). The western half of the North Atlantic sea floor and North America are moving together in a westerly direction away from the mid-Atlantic ridge plate boundary.

Convergent Boundaries

The second type of boundary, one resulting in a wide range of geologic activities, is a convergent boundary, wherein plates move toward each other (figure 1.10). By accommodating the addition of new sea floor at divergent boundaries, the destruction of old sea floor at convergent boundaries ensures the Earth does not grow in size. Examples of convergent boundaries include the Andes mountain range, Rift where the Nazca plate is subducting beneath the valley Lava (basalt) eruptions South American plate, and the Cascade Range of Washington, Oregon, and northern California, where the Juan de Fuca plate is subducting beneath the North American plate. Convergent boundaries, due to their geometry, are the sites of the largest earthquakes on Earth. It is useful to describe convergent boundaries by the character of the plates that are involved: Mantle ocean-continent, ocean-ocean, and continentcontinent. The difference in density of oceanic and A–Continent undergoes extension. The crust is thinned and continental rock explains the contrasting geological a rift valley forms. activities caused by their convergence.

Fault blocks

Narrow sea

Oceanic crust

B–Continent tears in two. Continent edges are faulted and uplifted. Basalt eruptions form oceanic crust.

Continental shelf

Ocean-Continent Convergence If one plate is capped by oceanic crust and the other by continental crust, the less-dense, more-buoyant continental plate will override the denser, oceanic plate (figure 1.10). The oceanic plate bends beneath the continental plate and sinks along what is known as a subduction zone, a zone where an oceanic plate descends into the mantle beneath an overriding plate. Deep oceanic trenches are found where oceanic lithosphere bends and begins its descent. These narrow, linear troughs are the deepest parts of the world’s oceans.

Mid-oceanic ridge Sea level

C–Continental sediments blanket the subsiding margins to form continental shelves. The ocean widens and a mid-oceanic ridge develops, as in the Atlantic Ocean.

FIGURE 1.9 A divergent boundary begins as a continent is pulled apart. As separation of continental crust proceeds, oceanic crust develops and an initially narrow sea floor grows larger in time.

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Sea level

19

Trench Mountains

Volcanoes

Folded and faulted sedimentary rock

Subduction zone

Oceanic crust

Folded and faulted sedimentary rock

Continental crust

Mantle (lithosphere) Mantle (asthenosphere)

Kilometers

Magma moving upward

100

Lithosphere

Mantle (lithosphere)

Magma created here Mantle (asthenosphere)

FIGURE 1.10 Block diagram of an ocean-continent convergent boundary. Oceanic lithosphere moves from left to right and is subducted beneath the overriding continental lithosphere. Magma is created by partial melting of the asthenosphere.

In the region where the top of the subducting plate slides beneath the asthenosphere, melting takes place and magma is created. Magma is less dense than the overlying solid rock. Therefore, the magma created along the subduction zone works its way upward and either erupts at volcanoes on the Earth’s surface to solidify as extrusive igneous rock, or solidifies within the crust to become intrusive igneous rock. Hot rock, under high pressure, near the subduction zone that does not melt may change in the solid state to a new rock—metamorphic rock. Near the edge of the continent, above the rising magma from the subduction zone, a major mountain belt, such as the Andes or Cascades, forms. The mountain belt grows due to the volcanic activity at the surface, the emplacement of bodies of intrusive igneous rock at depth, and intense compression caused by plate convergence. Layered sedimentary rock that may have formed on an ocean floor especially shows the effect of intense squeezing (for instance, the “folded and faulted sedimentary rocks” shown in figure 1.10). In this manner, rock that may have been below sea level might be squeezed upward to become part of a mountain range.

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Ocean-Ocean Convergence If both converging plates are oceanic, the denser plate will subduct beneath the less-dense plate (figure 1.11). A portion of a plate becomes colder and denser as it travels farther from the mid-oceanic ridge where it formed. After subduction begins, molten rock is produced just as it is in an ocean-continent subduction zone; however, in this case, the rising magma forms volcanoes that grow from an ocean floor rather than on a continent. The resulting mountain belt is called a volcanic island arc. Examples include the Aleutian Islands in Alaska and the islands of Indonesia and Sumatra, the site of the great earthquake that caused the devastating tsunami of 2004, described earlier.

Continent-Continent Convergence If both converging plates are continental, a quite different geologic deformation process takes place at the plate boundary. Continental lithosphere is much less dense than the mantle below and, therefore, neither plate subducts. The buoyant nature of continental lithosphere causes the two colliding continental plates to buckle and deform with significant

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Trench

Oceanic crust

Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts

CHAPTER 1

Forearc basin

Volcanic island arc

Backarc region

Accretionary wedge (fine-grained sediments scraped off the oceanic crust)

Sea level

Upper-mantle Lithosphere

Rising magma

Asthenosphere

100-km depth Earthquakes

result of rock that is created at and moving away from each of the displaced oceanic ridges. Although most transform faults are found along mid-oceanic ridges, occasionally a transform fault cuts through a continental plate. Such is the case with the San Andreas fault, which is a boundary between the North American and the Pacific plates. Box 1.4 outlines how plate tectonic theory was developed through the scientific method. If you do not have a thorough understanding of how the scientific method works, be sure to study the box. The U.S. Geological Survey’s online publication, This Dynamic Earth is an excellent supplement for learning about plate tectonics. Access it as described in “Exploring Web Resources” at the end of this chapter.

FIGURE 1.11 A volcanic island arc forms as a result of oceanic-oceanic plate convergence.

Surficial Processes: The Earth’s External Heat Engine

vertical uplift and thickening as well as lateral shortening. A spectacular example of continent-continent collision is the Himalayan mountain belt. The tallest peaks on Earth are located here and they continue to grow in height due to continued collision of the Indian sub-continent with the continental Eurasian plate. Continent-continent convergence is preceded by oceaniccontinental convergence (figure 1.12). An ocean basin between two continents closes because oceanic lithosphere is subducted beneath one of the continents. When the continents collide, one becomes wedged beneath the other. India collided with Asia around 40 million years ago, yet the forces that propelled them together are still in effect. The rocks continue to be deformed and squeezed into higher mountains.

Tectonic forces can squeeze formerly low-lying continental crustal rock along a convergent boundary and raise the upper part well above sea level. Portions of the crust also can rise because of isostatic adjustment, vertical movement of sections of Earth’s crust to achieve balance. That is to say, lighter rock will “float” higher than denser rock on the underlying mantle. Isostatic adjustment is why an empty ship is higher above water than an identical one that is full of cargo. Continental crust, which is less dense than oceanic crust, will tend to float higher over the underlying mantle than oceanic crust (which is why the oceanic crust is below sea level and the continents are above sea level). After a portion of the continental crust is pulled downward by tectonic forces, it is out of isostatic balance. It will then rise slowly due to isostatic adjustment when tectonic forces are relaxed. When a portion of crust rises above sea level, rocks are exposed to the atmosphere. Earth’s external heat engine, driven by solar power, comes into play. Circulation of the atmosphere and hydrosphere is mainly driven by solar power. Our weather is largely a product of the solar heat engine. For instance, hot air rises near the equator and sinks in cooler zones to the north and south. Solar heating of air creates wind; ocean waves are, in turn, produced by wind. When moist air cools, it rains or snows. Rainfall on hillsides flows down slopes and into streams. Streams flow to lakes or seas. Glaciers grow where there is abundant snowfall at colder, high elevations and flow downhill because of gravity. Where moving water, ice, or wind loosens and removes material, erosion is taking place. Streams flowing toward oceans remove some of the land over which they run. Crashing waves carve back a coastline. Glaciers grind and carry away underlying rock as they move. In each case, rock originally

Transform Boundaries The third type of boundary, a transform boundary (figure 1.13), occurs where two plates slide horizontally past each other, rather than toward or away from each other. The San Andreas fault in California and the Alpine fault of New Zealand are two examples of this type of boundary. Earthquakes resulting from motion along transform faults vary in size depending on whether the fault cuts through oceanic or continental crust and on the length of the fault. The San Andreas transform fault has generated large earthquakes, but the more numerous and much shorter transform faults within ocean basins generate much smaller earthquakes. The significance of transform faults was first recognized in ocean basins. Here they occur as fractures perpendicular to mid-oceanic ridges, which are offset (figure 1.8). As shown in figure 1.13, the motion on either side of a transform fault is a

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Accretionary wedge (fine-grained sediments scraped off oceanic crust)

Trench Ocean becomes narrower

Continental crust Upper-mantle lithosphere

A Ocean-continent convergence Young mountain belt (Himalaya)

Foreland basin

Tibetan Plateau

Mt. Everest

(India)

Suture zone

Indian Continental crust

Asian continental crust Upper-mantle lithosphere Asthenosphere Thrust faults

100 km (Surface vertical scale exaggerated 8x)

B Continent-continent collision

Eurasian plate INDIA TODAY

10 million years ago

Equator

71 million years ago

India land mass

C

FIGURE 1.12 Continent-continent convergence is preceded by the closing of an ocean basin while ocean-continent convergence takes place. C shows the position of India relative to the Eurasian plate in time. The convergence of the two plates created the Himalaya. Some of the features shown, such as accretionary wedge and foreland basin, are described in chapters 4 and 14.

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I N G R E AT E R D E P T H 1 . 4

Plate Tectonics and the Scientific Method

A

lthough the hypothesis was proposed only a few decades ago, plate tectonics has been so widely accepted and disseminated that most people have at least a rough idea of what it is about. Most nonscientists can understand the television and newspaper reports (and occasional comic strip, such as that in box figure 1) that include plate tectonics in reports on earthquakes and volcanoes. Our description of plate tectonics implies little doubt about the existence of the process. The theory of plate tectonics has been accepted as scientifically verified by geologists. Plate tectonic theory, like all knowledge gained by science, has evolved through the processes of the scientific method. We will illustrate the scientific method by showing how plate tectonics has evolved from a vague idea into a theory that is so likely to be true that it can be regarded as “fact.” The basis for the scientific method is the belief that the universe is orderly and that by objectively analyzing phenomena, we can discover their workings. Science is a deeply human endeavor that involves creativity. A scientist’s mind searches for connections and thinks of solutions to problems that might not have been considered by others. At the same time, a scientist must be aware of what work has been done by others, so that science can build on those works. Here, the scientific method is presented as a series of steps. A scientist is aware that his or her work must satisfy the requirements of the steps but does not ordinarily go through a formal checklist. 1. A question is raised or a problem is presented. 2. Available information pertinent to the question or problem is analyzed. Facts, which scientists call data, are gathered. 3. After the data have been analyzed, tentative explanations or solutions that are consistent with the observed data, called hypotheses, are proposed. 4. One predicts what would occur in given situations if a hypothesis were correct. 5. Predictions are tested. Incorrect hypotheses are discarded. 6. A hypothesis that passes the testing becomes a theory, which is regarded as having an excellent chance of being true. In science, however, nothing is considered proven

BOX 1.4 ■ FIGURE 1 Plate tectonics sometimes show up in comic strips. FRANK & ERNEST: © Thaves/Dist. by Newspaper Enterprise Association, Inc.

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absolutely. All scientifically derived knowledge is subject to being proven false. (Can you imagine what could prove that atoms and molecules don’t exist?) A thoroughly and rigorously tested theory becomes, for all intents and purposes, a fact, even though scientists still call it a theory (e.g., atomic theory). Like any human endeavor, the scientific method is not infallible. Objectivity is needed throughout. Someone can easily become attached to the hypothesis he or she has created and so tend subconsciously to find only supporting evidence. As in a court of law, every effort is made to have observers objectively examine the logic of both procedures and conclusions. Courts sometimes make wrong decisions; science, likewise, is not immune to error. The following outline shows how the concept of plate tectonics evolved: Step 1: A question asked or problem raised. Actually, a number of questions were being asked about seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. What caused the submarine ridge that extends through most of the oceans of the world? Why are rocks in mountain belts intensely deformed? What sets off earthquakes? What causes rock to melt underground and erupt as volcanoes? Why are most of the active volcanoes of the world located in a ring around the Pacific Ocean? Step 2: Gathering of data. Early in the twentieth century, the amount of data was limited. But through the decades, the information gathered increased enormously. New data, most notably information gained from exploration of the sea floor in the mid1900s, forced scientists to discard old hypotheses and come up with new ideas. Step 3: Hypotheses proposed. Most of the questions being asked were treated as separate problems wanting separate hypotheses. Some appeared interrelated. One hypothesis, continental drift, did address several questions. It was advocated by Alfred Wegener, a German scientist, in a book published in the early 1900s. Wegener postulated that the continents were all once part of a single supercontinent called Pangaea. The hypothesis explained why the coastlines of Africa and South America look like separated parts of a jigsaw puzzle. Some 200 million years ago, this supercontinent broke up, and the various continents slowly drifted into their present positions. The hypothesis suggested that the rock within mountain belts becomes deformed as the leading edge of a continental crust moves against and over the stationary oceanic crust. Earthquakes were presumably caused by continuing movement of the continents. Until the 1960s, continental drift was not widely accepted. It was scoffed at by many geologists who couldn’t conceive of how

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positive, indicating that the concept is not reasonably disputable and very probably true. It then became the plate tectonic theory.

a continent could be plowing over oceanic crust. During the 1960s, after new data on the nature of the sea floor became available, the idea of continental drift was incorporated into the concept of plate tectonics. What was added in the plate tectonic hypothesis was the idea that oceanic crust, as well as continental crust, was shifting.

During the last few years, plate tectonic theory has been further confirmed by the results of very accurate satellite surveys that determine where points on separate continents are relative to one another. The results indicate that the continents are indeed moving relative to one another. Europe and North America are moving farther apart. Although it is unlikely that plate tectonic theory will be replaced by something we haven’t thought of yet, aspects that fall under plate tectonics’ umbrella (for instance, exactly how does magma form at a convergent plate boundary?) continue to be analyzed and revised as new data become available.

Step 4: Prediction. An obvious prediction, if plate tectonics is correct, is that if Europe and North America are moving away from each other, the distance measured between the two continents is greater from one year to the next. But we cannot stretch a tape measure across oceans, and, until recently, we have not had the technology to accurately measure distances between continents. So, in the 1960s, other testable predictions had to be made. Some of these predictions and results of their testing are described in the chapter on plate tectonics. One of these predictions was that the rocks of the oceanic crust will be progressively older the farther they are from the crest of a midoceanic ridge.

Important Note Words used by scientists do not always have the same meaning when used by the general public. A case in point is the word theory. To most people, a “theory” is what scientists regard as a “hypothesis.” You may remember news reports about an airliner that exploded offshore from New York in 1996. A typical statement on television was: “One theory is that a bomb in the plane exploded; a second theory is that the plane was shot down by a missile fired from a ship at sea; a third theory is that a spark ignited in a fuel tank and the plane exploded.” Clearly, each “theory” is a hypothesis in the scientific sense of the word. This has led to considerable confusion for nonscientists about science. You have probably heard the expression, “It’s just a theory.” Statements such as, “Evolution is just a theory,” are used to imply that scientific support is weak. The reality is that theories such as evolution and plate tectonics have been so overwhelmingly verified that they come as close as possible to what scientists accept as being indisputable facts. They would, in laypersons’ terms, be “proven.”

Step 5: Predictions are tested. Experiments were conducted in which holes were drilled in the deep-sea floor from a specially designed ship. Rocks and sediment were collected from these holes, and the ages of these materials were determined. As the hypothesis predicted, the youngest sea floor (generally less than a million years old) is near the mid-oceanic ridges, whereas the oldest sea floor (up to about 200 million years old) is farthest from the ridges (box figure 2). This test was only one of a series. Various other tests, described in some detail later in this book, tended to confirm the hypothesis of plate tectonics. Some tests did not work out exactly as predicted. Because of this, and more detailed study of data, the original concept was, and continues to be, modified. The basic premise, however, is generally regarded as valid. Step 6: The hypothesis becomes a theory. Most geologists in the world considered the results of this and other tests as 0

23

100 kilometers

Mid-oceanic ridge

Sea level

OCEANIC CRUST

40 million years

28 million years

15 million years

7 million years

2 million years

2 million years

7 million years

Sea level Continent Drill hole

BOX 1.4 ■ FIGURE 2 Ages of rocks from holes drilled into the oceanic crust. (Vertical scale of diagram is exaggerated.)

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CHAPTER 1

Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts Transform boundary (and fault)

Rift valley

Plate A Plate B

Rift valley A

Earthquakes

Rift valley

Plate

B

e

at

Pl

Plate A

Mid-ocean rid

ge

Plate A

Plate B

Plate B

FIGURE 1.13 Transform faults (transform boundaries between plates) are the segments of the fractures between offset ridge crests. Oceanic crust is created at the ridge crests and moves away from the crest as indicated by the heavy arrows. The pairs of small arrows indicate motion on adjacent sides of fractures. Earthquakes take place along the transform fault because rocks are moving in opposite directions. The fractures extend beyond the ridges, but here the two segments of crust are moving in the same direction and rate and there are no earthquakes—these are not part of transform faults.

brought up by the Earth’s internal processes is worn down by surficial processes (figure 1.14). As material is removed through erosion, isostasy works to move the landmass upward, just as part of the submerged portion of an iceberg floats upward as ice melts. Or, going back to our ship analogy, as cargo is unloaded, the ship rises in the water. Rocks formed at high temperature and under high pressure deep within the Earth and pushed upward by isostatic and tectonic forces are unstable in their new environment. Air and water tend to cause the once deep-seated rocks to break down and form new materials. The new materials, stable under conditions at the Earth’s surface, are said to be in equilibrium—that is, adjusted to the physical and chemical conditions of their environment so that

Earth’s former surface

Sea

they do not change or alter with time. For example, much of an igneous rock (such as granite) that formed at a high temperature tends to break down chemically to clay. Clay is in equilibrium— that is to say it is stable—at the Earth’s surface. The product of the breakdown of rock is sediment, loose material. Sediment may be transported by an agent of erosion, such as running water in a stream. Sediment is deposited when the transporting agent loses its carrying power. For example, when a river slows down as it meets the sea, the sand being transported by the stream is deposited as a layer of sediment. In time, a layer of sediment deposited on the sea floor becomes buried under another layer. This process may continue, burying our original layer progressively deeper. The

Portion removed by erosion Sediment transported to sea

Igneous rock Uplift

Older rock

A

B

Earth’s present surface

Layers of sediment collect on the sea floor and will form sedimentary rock

FIGURE 1.14 Erosion, deposition, and uplift. (A) Magma has solidified deep underground to become igneous rock. (B) As the surface erodes, sediment is transported to the sea to become sedimentary rock. Isostatic adjustment causes uplift of the continent. Erosion and uplift expose the igneous rock at the surface.

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pressure from overlying layers compresses the sediment, helping to consolidate the loose material. With the cementation of the loose particles, the sediment becomes lithified (cemented or otherwise consolidated) into a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock that becomes deeply buried in the Earth may later be transformed by heat and pressure into metamorphic rock.

GEOLOGIC TIME We have mentioned the great amount of time required for geologic processes. As humans, we think in units of time related to personal experience—seconds, hours, years, a human lifetime. It stretches our imagination to contemplate ancient history that involves 1,000 or 2,000 years. Geology involves vastly greater amounts of time, often referred to as deep time. In order to try and comprehend the vastness of deep time go to the section “Comprehending Geologic Time” at the end of chapter 8. There we relate a very slow and very long movie to Earth’s history. Figure 8.25 compares deep time to a trip across the United States at the speed of 1 kilometer per 1 million years.

TABLE 1.2

25

To be sure, some geological processes occur quickly, such as a great landslide or a volcanic eruption. These events occur when stored energy (like the energy stored in a stretched rubber band) is suddenly released. Most geological processes, however, are slow but relentless, reflecting the pace at which the heat engines work. It is unlikely that a hill will visibly change in shape or height during your lifetime (unless through human activity). However, in a geologic time frame, the hill probably is eroding away quite rapidly. “Rapidly” to a geologist may mean that within a few million years, the hill will be reduced nearly to a plain. Similarly, in the geologically “recent” past of several million years ago, a sea may have existed where the hill is now. Some processes are regarded by geologists as “fast” if they are begun and completed within a million years. The rate of plate motion is relatively fast. If new magma erupts and solidifies along a mid-oceanic ridge, we can easily calculate how long it will take that igneous rock to move 1,000 kilometers away from the spreading center. At the rate of 1 centimeter per year, it will take 100 million years for the presently forming part of the crust to travel the 1,000 kilometers. Although we will discuss geologic time in detail in chapter 8, table 1.2 shows some reference points to keep in mind. The

Some Important Ages in the Development of Life on Earth

Millions of Years before Present

Noteworthy Life

4

Earliest hominids

65

First important mammals Extinction of dinosaurs

First dinosaurs

Eras

Periods

Cenozoic

Quaternary Tertiary

Mesozoic

Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic

Paleozoic

Permian Pennsylvanian Mississippian Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian

Precambrian

(The Precambrian accounts for the vast majority of geologic time.)

251

300

First reptiles

400

Fishes become abundant

544

First abundant fossils

600

Some complex, soft-bodied life Earliest single-celled fossils Origin of the Earth

3,500 4,550

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CHAPTER 1

Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts

Earth is estimated to be about 4.55 (usually rounded to 4.5 or 4.6) billion years old (4,550,000,000 years). Fossils in rocks indicate that complex forms of animal life have existed in abundance on Earth for about the past 544 million years. Reptiles became abundant about 230 million years ago. Dinosaurs evolved from reptiles and became extinct about 65 million years ago. Humans have been here only about the last 3 million years. The eras and periods shown in table 1.2 comprise a kind

Summary Geology is the scientific study of Earth. We benefit from geology in several ways: (1) We need geology to find and maintain a supply of minable commodities and sources of energy; (2) Geology helps protect the environment; (3) Applying knowledge about geologic hazards (such as volcanoes, earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides) saves lives and property; and (4) We have a greater appreciation of rocks and landforms through understanding how they form. Earth systems are the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the biosphere, and the geosphere (or solid Earth system). The Earth system is part of the solar system. Geological investigations indicate that Earth is changing because of internal and surficial processes. Internal processes are driven mostly by temperature differences within Earth’s mantle. Surficial processes are driven by solar energy. Internal forces cause the crust of Earth to move. Plate tectonic theory visualizes the lithosphere (the crust and uppermost mantle) as broken into plates that move relative to each other over the asthenosphere. The plates are moving away from divergent boundaries usually located at the crests of mid-oceanic ridges where new crust is being created. Divergent boundaries can develop in a continent and split the continent. Plates move toward convergent boundaries. In ocean-continent convergence, lithosphere with oceanic crust is subducted under lithosphere with continental crust. Ocean-ocean convergence involves subduction in which both plates have oceanic crust and the creation of a volcanic island arc. Continent-continent convergence takes place when two continents collide. Plates slide past one another at transform boundaries. Plate tectonics and isostatic adjustment cause parts of the crust to move up or down. Erosion takes place at Earth’s surface where rocks are exposed to air and water. Rocks that formed under high pressure and temperature inside Earth are out of equilibrium at the surface and tend to alter to substances that are stable at the surface. Sediment is transported to a lower elevation, where it is deposited (commonly on a sea floor in layers). When sediment is cemented, it becomes sedimentary rock. Although Earth is changing constantly, the rates of change are generally extremely slow by human standards.

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of calendar for geologists into which geologic events are placed (as explained in the chapter on geologic time). Not only are the immense spans of geologic time difficult to comprehend, but very slow processes are impossible to duplicate. A geologist who wants to study a certain process cannot repeat in a few hours a chemical reaction that takes a million years to occur in nature. As Mark Twain wrote in Life on the Mississippi, “Nothing hurries geology.”

Terms to Remember asthenosphere 14 atmosphere 11 biosphere 11 continent-continent convergence 18 continental drift 22 convergent boundary 18 core 14 crust 14 data 22 divergent boundary 15 Earth system 11 equilibrium 24 erosion 20 geology 4 geosphere (solid Earth system) 11 hydrosphere 11 hypothesis 22

igneous rock 15 isostatic adjustment 20 lithosphere 14 magma 15 mantle 14 metamorphic rock 19 mid-oceanic ridges 15 ocean-continent convergence 18 ocean-ocean convergence 18 plate tectonics 15 scientific method 22 sediment 24 sedimentary rock 25 solid Earth system 11 subduction zone 18 tectonic forces 14 theory 22 transform boundary 20

Testing Your Knowledge Use the following questions to prepare for exams based on this chapter. 1. What is meant by equilibrium? What happens when rocks are forced out of equilibrium? 2. What tectonic plate are you presently on? Where is the nearest plate boundary, and what kind of boundary is it? 3. What is the most likely geologic hazard in your part of your country? 4. What are the three major types of rocks? 5. What are the relationships among the mantle, the crust, the asthenosphere, and the lithosphere? 6. What would the surface of Earth be like if there were no tectonic activity? 7. Explain why cavemen never saw a dinosaur. 8. Plate tectonics is a result of Earth’s internal heat engine, powered by (choose all that apply) a. the Sun.

b. gravity.

c. heat flowing from Earth’s interior outward.

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27

3. What percentage of geologic time is accounted for by the last century?

a. 3–4 meters per year

b. 1 kilometer per year

4. What would Earth be like without solar heating?

c. 1–10 centimeters per year

d. 1,000 kilometers per year

5. What are some of the technical difficulties you would expect to encounter if you tried to drill a hole to the center of Earth?

10. Volcanic island arcs are associated with a. transform boundaries

b. divergent boundaries

c. ocean-continent convergence

d. ocean-ocean convergence

11. The division of geology concerned with Earth materials, changes in the surface and interior of the Earth, and the dynamic forces that cause those changes is a. physical geology

b. historical geology

c. geophysics

d. paleontology

12. Which is a geologic hazard? a. earthquake

b. volcano

c. mudflows

d. floods

e. wave erosion at coastlines

f. landslides

g. all of the preceding 13. The largest zone of Earth’s interior by volume is the a. crust

b. mantle

c. outer core

d. inner core

14. Oceanic and continental crust differ in a. composition

b. density

c. thickness

d. all of the preceding

15. The forces generated inside Earth that cause deformation of rock as well as vertical and horizontal movement of portions of Earth’s crust are called

Exploring Web Resources www.mhhe.com/carlson9e McGraw-Hill’s website for Physical Geology: Earth Revealed 9th edition features a wide variety of study aids, such as animations, quizzes, answers to the end-of-chapter multiple choice questions, additional readings and Google Earth exercises, Internet exercises, and much more. The URLs listed in this book are given as links in chapter web pages, making it easy to go to a website without typing in its URL. http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/dynamic.html This Dynamic Earth by the U.S. Geological Survey is an online, illustrated publication explaining plate tectonics. You may want to go to the section “Understanding plate motion.” This will help reinforce what you read about plate tectonics in this chapter. It goes into plate tectonics in greater depth, however, covering material that is in chapter 4 of this textbook. www.uh.edu/⬃jbutler/anon/anontrips.html Virtual Field Trips. The site provides access to geologic sites throughout the world. Many are field trips taken by geology classes. Check the alphabetical listing and see if there are any sites near you. Or watch a video clip in one of the Quick Time field trips.

a. erosional forces

b. gravitational forces

c. tectonic forces

d. all of the preceding

www.usgs.gov The U.S. Geological Survey’s home page. Use this as a gateway to a wide range of geologic information.

a. conjecture

b. opinion

c. hypothesis

d. theory

http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/index_e.php The Geological Survey of Canada home page.

16. Plate tectonics is a

17. Which is a type of a plate boundary? a. divergent

b. transform

c. convergent

d. all of the preceding

Animations

18. The lithosphere is a. the same as the crust

b. the layer beneath the crust

c. the crust and uppermost mantle

d. only part of the mantle

19. Erosion is a result of Earth’s external heat engine, powered by (choose all that apply) a. the Sun

b. gravity

c. heat flowing from Earth’s interior outward

This chapter includes the following animations on the book’s website at www.mhhe.com/carlson9e. Fig. 1.9 Fig. 1.10 Fig. 1.11 Fig. 1.12 Fig. 1.13

Divergence of plates at mid-oceanic ridge Convergence of plates—ocean-continent Convergence of plates—ocean-ocean Convergence of plates—continent-continent Transform faults

Expanding Your Knowledge 1. Why are some parts of the lower mantle hotter than other parts? 2. According to plate tectonic theory, where are crustal rocks created? Why doesn’t Earth keep getting larger if rock is continually created?

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C

H

A

P

T

E

R

2 Earth’s Interior and Geophysical Properties Introduction Evidence from Seismic Waves Earth’s Internal Structure The Crust The Mantle The Core

Isostasy Gravity Measurements Earth’s Magnetic Field Magnetic Reversals Magnetic Anomalies

Heat within the Earth Geothermal Gradient Heat Flow

Summary

T

he only rocks that geologists can study directly in place are those of the crust, and Earth’s crust is but a thin skin of rock, making up less than 1% of Earth’s total volume. Mantle rocks brought to Earth’s surface in basalt flows and in diamond-bearing kimberlite pipes, as well as the tectonic attachment of lower parts of the oceanic lithosphere to the continental crust, give geologists a glimpse of what the underlying mantle might look like. Meteorites also give clues about the possible composition of the core of Earth. But to learn more about the deep interior of Earth, geologists must study it indirectly, largely by using the tools of geophysics—that is, seismic waves and the measurement of gravity, heat flow, and Earth magnetism. The evidence from geophysics suggests that Earth is divided into three major compositional layers—the crust on Earth’s surface, the rocky mantle beneath the crust,

Diamonds form in the mantle and are brought to the surface in kimberlite pipes, giving geologists a glimpse of Earth’s interior. Photo © Reuters New-

Media Inc./Corbis

29

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CHAPTER 2

Earth’s Interior and Geophysical Properties

and the metallic core at the center of Earth. The study of plate tectonics has shown that the crust and uppermost mantle can be mechanically divided into the brittle lithosphere and the ductile or plastic asthenosphere. You will learn in this chapter how gravity measurements can indicate where certain regions of the crust and upper

mantle are being held up or held down out of their natural position of equilibrium. We will also discuss Earth’s magnetic field and its history of reversals. We will show how magnetic anomalies can indicate hidden ore and geologic structures. The chapter closes with a discussion of the distribution and loss of Earth’s heat.

INTRODUCTION What do geologists know about Earth’s interior? How do they obtain information about the parts of Earth beneath the surface? Geologists, in fact, are not able to sample rocks very far below Earth’s surface. Some deep mines penetrate 3 kilometers into Earth, and a deep oil well may go as far as 8 kilometers beneath the surface; the deepest scientific well has reached 12 kilometers in Russia. Rock samples can be brought up from a mine or a well for geologists to study. A direct look at rocks from deeper levels can be achieved where mantle rocks have been brought up to the surface by basalt flows, by the intrusion and erosion of diamond-bearing kimberlite pipes (see chapter 12), or where the lower part of the oceanic lithosphere (see chapter 3) has been tectonically attached to the continental crust at a convergent plate boundary. However, Earth has a radius of about 6,370 kilometers, so it is obvious that geologists can only scratch the surface when they try to study directly the rocks beneath their feet. Deep parts of Earth are studied indirectly, however, largely through the branch of geology called geophysics, which is the application of physical laws and principles to a study of Earth. Geophysics includes the study of seismic waves and Earth’s magnetic field, gravity, and heat. All of these things tell us something about the nature of the deeper parts of Earth. Together, they create a convincing picture of what makes up Earth’s interior.

EVIDENCE FROM SEISMIC WAVES Seismic waves from a large earthquake may pass through the entire Earth. A man-made explosion also generates seismic waves. Geologists obtain new information about Earth’s interior after every large earthquake and explosion. More recently, scientists have also been analyzing the energy waves generated by tidal friction, ocean waves, and storms to gain an even more detailed image of the crust and upper mantle. One important way of learning about Earth’s interior is the study of seismic reflection, the return of some of the energy of seismic waves to Earth’s surface after the waves bounce off a rock boundary. If two rock layers of differing densities are separated by a fairly sharp boundary, seismic waves reflect off that boundary just as light reflects off a mirror (figure 2.1). These reflected waves are recorded on a seismogram, which shows the amount of time the waves took to travel down to the boundary, reflect off it, and return to the surface. From the amount of

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Seismic station Earthquake Layer A

Reflecting boundary

Layer B

FIGURE 2.1 Seismic reflection. Seismic waves reflect from a rock boundary deep within the Earth and return to a seismograph station on the surface.

time necessary for the round trip, geologists calculate the depth of the boundary. Another method used to locate rock boundaries is the study of seismic refraction, the bending of seismic waves as they pass from one material to another, which is similar to the way that light waves bend when they pass through the lenses of eyeglasses. As a seismic wave strikes a rock boundary, much of the energy of the wave passes across the boundary. As the wave crosses from one rock layer to another, it changes direction (figure 2.2). This change of direction, or refraction, occurs only if the velocity of seismic waves is different in each layer (which is generally true if the rock layers differ in density or strength). The boundaries between such rock layers are usually distinct enough to be located by seismic refraction techniques, as shown in figure 2.3. Seismograph station 1 is receiving seismic waves that pass directly through the upper layer (A). Stations farther from the epicenter, such as station 2, receive seismic waves from two pathways: (1) a direct path straight through layer (A) and (2) a refracted path through layer (A) to a higher-velocity layer (B) and back to layer (A). Station 2, therefore, receives the same wave twice. Seismograph stations close to station 1 receive only the direct wave or possibly two waves, the direct (upper) wave arriving before the refracted (lower) wave. Stations near station 2 receive both the direct and the refracted waves. At some point between station 1 and station 2, there is a transformation from receiving the direct wave first to receiving the refracted wave

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Epicenter

Test explosion

Minimum distance from epicenter for refracted wave to arrive before direct wave Seismic station 1

Layer in which seismic waves travel more slowly (low-velocity layer)

Path of seismic wave

New direction of seismic wave

Layer in which seismic waves travel more rapidly (high-velocity layer)

Quake

Seismic station 2

Surface

Layer A

A

Layer B Test explosion

FIGURE 2.3 Seismic refraction can be used to detect boundaries between rock layers. See text for explanation.

High-velocity layer

Seismic station

Low-velocity layer

B

Earthquake focus

FIGURE 2.2 Seismic refraction occurs when seismic waves bend as they cross rock boundaries. At an interface, seismic (or sound or light) waves will bend toward the lower-velocity material. (A) Low-velocity layer above high-velocity layer. (B) High-velocity layer above low-velocity layer. Some of the seismic waves will also return to the surface by reflecting off the rock boundary.

A

Earthquake focus

first. Even though the refracted wave travels farther, it can arrive at a station first because most of its path is in the highvelocity layer (B). The distance between this point of transformation and the epicenter of the earthquake is a function of the depth to the rock boundary between layers (A) and (B). A series of portable seismographs can be set up in a line away from an explosion (a seismic shot) to find this distance, and the depth to the boundary can then be calculated. The velocities of seismic waves within the layers can also be found. Figure 2.2 shows how waves bend as they travel downward into higher-velocity layers. But why do waves return to the surface, as shown in figure 2.3? The answer is that advancing waves give off energy in all directions. Much of this energy

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B

FIGURE 2.4 Curved paths of seismic waves caused by uniform rock with increasing seismic velocity with depth. (A) Path between earthquake and recording station. (B) Waves spreading out in all directions from earthquake focus.

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CHAPTER 2

Earth’s Interior and Geophysical Properties

continues to travel horizontally within layer (B) (figure 2.3). This energy passes beneath station 2 and out of the figure toward the right. A small part of the energy “leaks” upward into layer (A), and it is this pathway that is shown in the figure. There are many other pathways for this wave’s energy that are not shown here. A sharp rock boundary is not necessary for the refraction of seismic waves. Even in a thick layer of uniform rock, the increasing pressure with depth tends to increase the velocity of the waves. The waves follow curved paths through such a layer, as shown in figure 2.4. To understand the reason for the curving path, visualize the thick rock layer as a stack of very thin layers, each with a slightly higher velocity than the one above. The curved path results from many small changes in direction as the wave passes through the many layers.

EARTH’S INTERNAL STRUCTURE It was the study of seismic refraction and seismic reflection that enabled scientists to plot the three main zones of Earth’s interior (figure 2.5). The crust is the outer layer of rock,

which forms a thin skin on Earth’s surface. Below the crust lies the mantle, a thick shell of rock that separates the crust above from the core below. The core is the central zone of Earth. It is probably metallic and the source of Earth’s magnetic field.

The Crust Studies of seismic waves have shown (1) that the crust is thinner beneath the oceans than beneath the continents (figure 2.6) and (2) that seismic waves travel faster in oceanic crust than in continental crust. Because of this velocity difference, it is assumed that the two types of crust are made up of different kinds of rock. Seismic P waves travel through oceanic crust at about 7 kilometers per second, which is also the speed at which they travel through basalt and gabbro (the coarse-grained equivalent of basalt). Samples of rocks taken from the sea floor by oceanographic ships verify that the upper part of the oceanic crust is basalt and suggest that the lower part is gabbro. The oceanic crust averages 7 kilometers (4.3 miles) in thickness, varying from 5 to 8 kilometers (table 2.1). Crust (5

70 km thick)

Crust Upper mantle

Mantle Upper

Lower mantle mantle

0 67m k

Outer core (liquid)

Inner core (solid) 1220 km

70

6,3

km

2,900

km

2250 km

Coremantle boundary (ULVZ)

FIGURE 2.5 Earth’s interior. Seismic waves show the three main divisions of Earth: the crust, the mantle, and the core. Photo by NASA

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TABLE 2.1

Average thickness Seismic P-wave velocity Density Probable composition

The boundary that separates the crust from the mantle beneath it is called the Mohorovic˘i´c discontinuity (Moho for short). Note from figure 2.6 that the mantle lies closer to Earth’s surface beneath the ocean than it does beneath continents. The idea behind an ambitious program called Project Mohole (begun during the early 1960s) was to use specially equipped ships to drill through the oceanic crust and obtain samples from the mantle. Although the project was abandoned because of high costs, ocean-floor drilling has become routine since then, but not to the great depth necessary to sample the mantle. Perhaps in the future, the original concept of drilling to the mantle through oceanic crust will be revived. (Ocean drilling is discussed in more detail in chapters 3 and 4.)

Characteristics of Oceanic Crust and Continental Crust Oceanic Crust

33

Continental Crust

7 km

20 to 70 km (thickest under mountains) 7 km/second 6 km/second (higher in lower crust) 3.0 gm/cm3 2.7 gm/cm3 Basalt underlain Granite, other by gabbro plutonic rocks, schist, gneiss (with sedimentary rock cover)

The Mantle Because of the way seismic waves pass through the mantle, geologists think that it, like the crust, is made of solid rock. Localized magma chambers of melted rock may occur as isolated pockets of liquid in both the crust and the upper mantle, but most of the mantle seems to be solid. Because P waves travel at about 8 kilometers per second in the upper mantle, it appears that the mantle is a different type of rock from either oceanic crust or continental crust. The best hypothesis that geologists can make about the composition of the upper mantle is that it consists of ultramafic rock such as peridotite. Ultramafic rock is dense igneous rock made up chiefly of ferromagnesian minerals such as olivine and pyroxene. Some ultramafic rocks contain garnet, and feldspar is extremely rare in the mantle. The crust and uppermost mantle together form the lithosphere, the outer shell of Earth that is relatively strong and brittle. The lithosphere makes up the plates of plate-tectonic theory. The lithosphere averages about 70 kilometers (43.4 miles) thick beneath oceans and may be 125 to 250 kilometers thick beneath continents. Its lower boundary is marked by a curious mantle layer in which seismic waves slow down (figure 2.6).

Seismic P waves travel more slowly through continental crust—about 6 kilometers per second, the same speed at which they travel through granite and gneiss. Continental crust is often called “granitic,” but the term should be put in quotation marks because most of the rocks exposed on land are not granite. The continental crust is highly variable and complex, consisting of a crystalline basement composed of granite, other plutonic rocks, gneisses, and schists, all capped by a layer of sedimentary rocks, like icing on a cake. Since a single rock term cannot accurately describe crust that varies so greatly in composition, some geologists use the term felsic (rocks high in feldspar and silicon) for continental crust and mafic (rocks high in magnesium and iron) for oceanic crust. Continental crust is much thicker than oceanic crust, averaging 30 to 50 kilometers (18.6 to 31 miles) in thickness, though it varies from 20 to 70 kilometers. Seismic waves show that the crust is thickest under geologically young mountain ranges, such as the Andes and Himalayas, bulging downward as a mountain root into the mantle (figure 2.6). The continental crust is also less dense than oceanic crust, a fact that is important in plate tectonics (table 2.1).

Depth (km)

8 km/sec

Mohorovi

100

200

300 400

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Asthenosphere (low-velocity zone)

c i c´

discontinuity

Upper mantle

Continental crust 300 km deep)

Distribution of earthquakes at plate boundaries. Shallow-focus earthquakes occur at divergent boundaries where the lithosphere is being pulled apart and also along transform boundaries where slip in the lithosphere accommodates the spreading between oceanic ridges. Shallow- to deep-focus earthquakes occur where a lithosphere subducts during collision of two plates.

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from first-motion studies shows that the faults here are normal faults, parallel to the rift valley. The ridge crest is under tension, which is tearing the sea floor apart, creating the rift valley and causing the earthquakes. A divergent boundary within a continent is usually also marked by a rift valley, shallow-focus quakes, and normal faults. The African Rift Valleys in eastern Africa (figure 7.22B) seem to be such a boundary. Tensional forces are tearing eastern Africa slowly apart, creating the rift valleys, some of which contain lakes (see figure 4.21). Other areas where the continental crust is being pulled apart, such as the Basin and Range province in the western United States, are also marked by normal faults and shallow earthquakes.

Transform Boundaries Where two plates move past each other along a transform boundary, the earthquakes are shallow. First-motion studies indicate strike-slip motion on faults parallel to the boundary. The earthquakes are aligned in a narrow band along the transform fault. Although most transform faults occur on the ocean floor and offset ridge segments, some are found in the continental crust. The San Andreas fault in California is the most famous example of a right-lateral transform fault (see box 7.2). The Alpine fault in New Zealand is another example of a rightlateral transform fault.

Convergent Boundaries Convergent boundaries are of two general types, one marked by the collision of two continents, the other marked by subduction of the ocean floor under a continent (figure 7.26) or another piece of sea floor. Each type has a characteristic pattern of earthquakes. Collision boundaries are characterized by broad zones of shallow earthquakes on a complex system of faults (figure 7.26). Some of the faults are parallel to the dip of the suture zone that marks the line of collision; some are not. One continent usually overrides the other slightly (continents are not dense enough to be subducted), creating thick crust and a mountain range. The Himalayas represent such a boundary (figure 7.22B). The seismic zone is so broad and complex at such boundaries that other criteria, such as detailed geologic maps, must be used to identify the position of the suture zone at the plate boundary. During subduction, earthquakes occur for several different reasons. As a dense oceanic plate bends to go down at a trench, it stretches slightly at the top of the bend, and normal faults occur as the rocks are subjected to tension. This gives a blockfaulted character to the outer (seaward) wall of a trench. For some distance below the trench, the subducting plate is in contact with the overlying plate. First-motion studies of earthquakes at these shallow depths show that the quakes are caused by shallow-angle thrust-faulting. This is the motion expected as one plate slides beneath another, a process commonly called underthrusting.

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179

At greater depths, where the descending plate is not in direct contact with the overlying plate, earthquakes are common, but the reasons for them are not obvious. The quakes are confined to a thin zone, only 20 to 30 kilometers thick, within the lithosphere of the descending plate, which is about 100 kilometers thick. This zone is thought to be near the top of the lithosphere, where the rock is colder and more brittle.

Subduction Angle The horizontal and vertical distribution of earthquakes can be used to determine the angle of subduction of a down-going plate. Subduction angles vary considerably from trench to trench. Many plates start subducting at a gentle angle, which becomes much steeper with depth. At a few trenches in the open Pacific, subduction begins (and continues) at almost a vertical angle. Subduction angle is probably controlled by plate density and the rate of plate convergence. Older oceanic lithosphere, such as that in the southeast Pacific, tends to be colder and more dense and therefore subducts at a steeper angle; younger oceanic plates in close proximity to the oceanic ridge are warmer and more buoyant and subduct at a shallower angle. A faster rate of convergence may also result in a shallower angle of subduction. In summary, earthquakes are very closely related to plate tectonics. Most plate boundaries are defined by the distribution of earthquakes, and plate motion can be deduced by the first motions of the quakes. Analysis of first motions can also help determine the type and orientation of stresses that act on plates, such as tension and compression. Quake distribution with depth indicates the angle of subduction and has shown that some plates change subduction angle and even break up as they descend. A few quakes, such as those that occur in the center of plates, cannot easily be related to plate motion. These intraplate earthquakes probably occurred along older faults that are no longer plate boundaries but remain zones of crustal weakness. Some of the most destructive earthquakes in the United States, such as the 1811–1812 New Madrid, Missouri; 1886 Charleston, South Carolina; and 1755 Boston, Massachusetts, quakes, occurred as intraplate earthquakes.

EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION AND SEISMIC RISK People who live in earthquake-prone regions are plagued by unscientific predictions of impending earthquakes by popular writers and self-proclaimed prophets. Several techniques are being explored for scientifically forecasting a coming earthquake. One group of methods involves monitoring slight changes, or precursors, that occur in rock next to a fault before the rock breaks and moves; these methods that assume large amounts of strain are stored in rock before it breaks (figure 7.2).

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Just as a bent stick may crackle and pop before it breaks with a loud snap, a rock may give warning signals that it is about to break. Before a large quake, small cracks may open within the rock, causing small tremors, or microseisms, to increase. The properties of the rock next to the fault may be changed by the opening of such cracks. Changes in the rock’s magnetism, electrical resistivity, or seismic velocity may give some warning of an impending quake. The opening of tiny cracks changes the rock’s porosity, so water levels in wells often rise or fall before quakes. The cracks provide pathways for the release of radioactive radon gas from rocks (radon is a product of radioactive decay of uranium and other elements). An increase in radon emission from wells may be a prelude to an earthquake. The interval between eruptions of geysers may change before and after an earthquake, probably due to porosity changes within the surrounding rock. In some areas, the surface of Earth tilts and changes elevation slightly before an earthquake. Scientists use highly sensitive instruments to measure this increasing strain in hopes of predicting quakes. Chinese scientists claim successful, short-range predictions by watching animal behavior—horses become skittish and snakes leave their holes shortly before a quake. U.S. scientists conducted a few pilot programs along these lines, but remain skeptical because it is difficult to correlate a specific animal behavior to an impending earthquake. It is interesting that very few animals were killed by the Indian Ocean tsunami. Apparently before the tsunami hit, elephants were seen running to higher ground, flamingos left low-lying breeding areas, and dogs refused to go outdoors. Japanese and Russian geologists were the first to predict earthquakes successfully, and Chinese geologists have made some very accurate predictions. In 1975, a 7.3-magnitude earthquake near Haicheng in northeastern China was predicted five hours before it happened. Alerted by a series of foreshocks, authorities evacuated about a million people from their homes; many watched outdoor movies in the open town square. Half the buildings in Haicheng were destroyed, along with many entire villages, but only a few hundred lives were lost. In grim contrast, however, the Chinese program failed to predict the 1976 Tangshan earthquake (magnitude 7.6), which struck with no warning and killed an estimated 250,000 people. Most of these methods were once considered very promising but have since proved to be of little real help in predicting quakes. A typical quake predictor, such as tilt of the land surface, may precede one quake and then be absent for the next ten quakes. In addition, each precursor can be caused by forces unrelated to earthquakes (land tilt is also caused by mountain building, magmatic intrusion, mass wasting, and wetting and drying of the land). A fundamentally different method of determining the probability of an earthquake occurring relies on the history of earthquakes along a fault and the amount of tectonic stress building in the rock. Geologists look at the geologic record for evidence of past earthquakes using the techniques of paleoseismology.

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One technique involves digging a trench across the fault zone to examine sedimentary layers that have been offset and disrupted during past earthquakes (figure 7.27A and B). If the offset layers contain material such as volcanic ash, pollen, or organic material such as tree roots that can give a numerical age, then the average length of time between earthquakes (recurrence interval) can be determined. If the length of time since the last recorded earthquake far exceeds the recurrence interval, the fault is given a high probability of generating an earthquake. Along some long-active faults are short, inactive segments called seismic gaps where earthquakes have not occurred for a long time. These gaps form as part of the seismic cycle and result in a zone of lowered stress, or stress shadow zone, where earthquake activity sharply decreases after a major seismic event. Such was the case after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and after the 1857 break along the southern section of the San Andreas fault (see box 7.2). The recurrence interval and likelihood of future earthquakes are also determined by measuring the slip rate along plate boundaries. Exciting new satellite-based techniques such as InSAR (interferometric synthetic aperture radar), in addition to GPS, have allowed seismologists to measure the vertical and horizontal movement along active faults and to determine how long it would take for sufficient stress to build up along the plate boundary to generate rupturing and slip along a fault. For example, if the slip rate along the boundary is determined to be 5 centimeters per year and the last earthquake resulted in 5 meters of slip, then you would expect the next large earthquake to occur in 100 years. Just as a rubber band will break if stretched too far, rock will also break or rupture if a critical level of stress is exceeded. In other cases, the accumulating stress is released aseismically by socalled silent earthquakes where a fault slips very slowly or creeps to gradually relieve the stress. Slip rates and recurrence intervals are used to determine the statistical probability of an earthquake occurring over a given amount of time. By studying the seismic history of faults, geologists in the United States are sometimes able to forecast earthquakes along some segments of some faults. In 1988, the U.S. Geological Survey estimated a 50% chance of a magnitude-7 quake along the segment of the San Andreas fault near Santa Cruz. In 1989, the magnitude-7 Loma Prieta quake occurred on this very section. Since the techniques are new and in some cases only partly understood, some errors will undoubtedly be made. Many faults are not monitored or studied historically because of lack of money and personnel, so we will never have a warning of impending quakes in some regions. For large urban areas near active faults such as the San Andreas, however, earthquake risk analysis may reduce damage and loss of life. Another more recent approach to minimize loss of life and reduce damage in a major earthquake is to closely monitor the amount and location of strong shaking by using a dense network of broadband seismometers that digitally relay information via satellites to a central location. At this location, maps showing where the greatest amount of shaking occurred can be generated within minutes to guide emergency personnel to the areas of

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FIGURE 7.27 To determine the likelihood of a large earthquake occurring again along an active fault, geologists need to know how often quakes have occurred in the past and how large the last one was. By using the techniques of paleoseismology, geologists dig a trench (A) across or alongside a fault and very carefully map disturbed layers of sediment and soil exposed in the upper few meters of the trench (B). (A) Trench being dug across the southern Hayward fault near Fremont, California, by the U.S. Geological Survey to reevaluate the seismic risk for the San Francisco Bay area. (B) Photomosaic of the wall of a trench dug across the Coachella Valley section of the San Andreas fault near Thousand Palms Oasis, California reveals evidence for three of the five past earthquakes that struck this area since 825 A.D. (Events TP-1, 2, and 5). Evidence for the three separate earthquakes is shown in the trench either by the fault displacing different channel deposits against one another (TP-1 offsets channel IV against VI and TP-5 offsets channel I against II) or the fault being buried or terminated by younger channel deposits (TP-2 cuts channel IV but not the overlying channel V sediments). Based on these relations and on radiocarbon dates obtained from the disrupted layers (shown by small yellow boxes), it has been determined that the average time between earthquakes for this section of the San Andreas fault is 215 ± 25 years. Because the last earthquake (TP-1) occurred sometime after 1520–1680 A.D., more than 233 years have elapsed since the most recent earthquake, and geologists are concerned that the southernmost San Andreas fault zone is overdue for a large earthquake. Photo A by Jennifer Adleman, U.S. Geological Survey; photo B from Bulletin Seismological Society of America, 2002, v. 92, no. 7, p. 2851, courtesy of T. E. Fumal, U.S. Geological Survey

A

B

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E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 7 . 2

Waiting for the Big One in California

T

N

San Francisco

Hayward fault

Creeping segment

A N D R

E A

1857 break

S

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North

1906 break

SA

he San Andreas fault, running north–south for 1,300 kilometers (807 miles) through California, is a right-lateral fault capable of generating great earthquakes of magnitude 8 or more. The 1906 ear thquake near San Francisco caused a 450-kilometer scar in northern California (box figure 1). The portion of the fault nearest Los Angeles last broke in 1857 in a quake that was probably of comparable size. The ground has not broken in either of these regions since these quakes. Each old break is now a seismic gap, where rock strain is being stored prior to the next giant quake. Recent California quakes were considerably smaller than the “Big One” long predicted by geologists to be in the magnitude-8 range. The 1906 quake in the north had an estimated Richter magnitude of 8.25, and the southern break in 1857 near Fort Tejon was estimated to have a moment magnitude (M) of 7.8. In contrast, the 1989 Loma Prieta quake on the San Andreas fault near San Francisco was a M7.2 and the 1994 Northridge quake (not on the San Andreas fault) was M6.7. So, recent California quakes have been about magnitude 7 or less, and the Big One should be 8. A magnitude-8 quake has 10 times the ground shaking and 32 times the energy of a magnitude-7 quake. In other words, it would take about 32 Loma Prieta quakes to equal the Big One. Comparing moment magnitudes for 1994 and 1857 in southern California, it would take nearly 64 Northridge quakes to equal the Fort Tejon quake. A great earthquake of magnitude 8 could strike either the northern section or the southern section of the San Andreas fault. Which section will break first? Because the southern section has been inactive longer, it may be the likelier candidate. A magnitude-8 quake here could cause hundreds of billions of dollars in damage and kill thousands of people if it struck during weekday business hours when Los Angeles-area buildings and streets are crowded with people. The M6.7 Northridge quake caused more than $20 billion in damage and was the most costly earthquake in U.S. history. It is daunting to think of an earthquake 64 times more powerful. Detailed paleoseismology studies suggest that great earthquakes have a recurrence interval of about 105 years on the southern portion of the San Andreas fault near San Bernardino. Historic records in California do not go very far back in time, and much of the evidence involves isotopic dating of broken beds of carbon-rich sediments. Because the time elapsed since the most recent 1857 earthquake is much longer than the 105-year average between quakes, geologists are concerned that the southern part of the fault may rupture again in a M7.6–7.8 earthquake within the next few decades putting the urban San Bernardino–Riverside area at great risk. But the northern portion of the San Andreas fault is dangerous, too. Prior to 1906, this section of the fault broke in another giant quake in 1838. These quakes were only 68 years apart, and 1906 plus 68 equals 1974, so the northern section may actually be overdue for a big quake. According to the 2007 Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast (UCERF), the probability of a repeat of the 1906 quake (8+) on the locked northern portion of the San Andreas fault may be very low, less than 2% for the next thirty years (box figure 2). However, the new statewide forecast (UCERF) estimates the chance of a magnitude 6.7 earthquake in northern California to be 93%

FA

rlo G` a

UL

Los Angeles

T

t fau`l ck

LARSE study Fig. 3

BOX 7.2 ■ FIGURE 1 The two major breaks on the San Andreas fault in California. Each break occurred during a giant earthquake (break from the 1857 earthquake is shown in green and the 1906 earthquake is shown in red). Each old break is now a seismic gap where the fault is locked and may be the future site for another major earthquake. A creeping segment (blue) separates the two locked portions. From U.S. Geological Survey

over the next thirty years. A likely candidate for the quake is not the San Andreas, but the Hayward fault across the bay from San Francisco. Such a quake near or under Bay-area cities such as Oakland and Berkeley would cause far greater death and destruction than the 1989 quake. The UCERF report estimates that the southern part of the San Andreas fault has a 3% probability of a M8 earthquake and a 59% chance of a magnitude 6.7 earthquake within the next thirty years. However, the overall probability of a magnitude 6.7 earthquake in southern California is 97% for the next thirty years (box figure 2). The faults with the highest probabilities of generating a M6.7 or greater earthquake are the southern San Andreas, and the San Jacinto and Elsinore faults which parallel the San Andreas. Because of the destructiveness of the Northridge earthquake and the earlier 1987 Whittier Narrows quake (M5.9), geologists are also concerned that a blind thrust fault (fault that cannot be seen at the surface) might rupture closer to downtown Los Angeles. To

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Sedimentary rocks * 1987 5.9 Whittier Narrows

Cascadia Zone ion Subduct

30-Year Earthquake Probability

1991 * 5.8

jav Sierra Madre Brit tle

C Ductile

0 0

200 MILES

Pacific plate

200 KILOMETERS

eD

Ma dre Sie rra

W Fa hittie ult r

Los Angeles

Sa Fa n An ult dr Zo eas ne

Th rus

t

More than 99% probability in the next 30 years for one or more magnitude 6.7 or greater quake capable of causing extensive damage and loss of life. The map shows the distribution throughout the State of the likelihood of having a nearby earthquake rupture (within 3 or 4 miles).

es ert

San Gabriel Mountains 1857 7.8 Fort Tejon

San Gabriel Basin

Mo

Los Angeles Basin

CALIFORNIA AREA EARTHQUAKE PROBABILITY

183

ru

M

st

an

tle

North American plate

BOX 7.2 ■ FIGURE 3

N Boundary used in this study between northern and southern California

REGIONAL 30-YEAR EARTHQUAKE PROBABILITIES Magnitude 6.7

San Francisco region 63%

Los Angeles region 67%

Magnitude 6.7 7.0 7.5 8.0

Northern California 93% 68% 15% 2%

Southern California 97% 82% 37% 3%

BOX 7.2 ■ FIGURE 2 Map of California showing the probability of a magnitude 6.7 or greater earthquake occurring between the years 2007 and 2036, as determined by the Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast, Version 2. Courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey, California Geological Survey, Southern California Earthquake Center.

determine the underground configuration of the blind thrust faults and to investigate how deep sedimentary basins are that will amplify shaking in the region, the Los Angeles Regional Seismic Experiment (LARSE) was undertaken to predict where the strongest shaking will

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Los Angeles Regional Seismic Experiment (LARSE). Diagram shows an interpretation of the subsurface structures imaged under the San Andreas fault zone westward under the San Gabriel and Los Angeles Basins.

occur during future earthquakes. The LARSE project involved setting off underground explosive charges to generate sound waves that could be analyzed by powerful computers to produce images of the subsurface. The experiment revealed a main blind thrust fault 20 kilometers (12 miles) beneath the surface that extends from near the San Andreas fault and transfers stress and strain upward and southward under the San Gabriel Valley and the Los Angeles Basin (box figure 3). The images also show that the sedimentary basin under the San Gabriel Valley is nearly 5 kilometers (3 miles) deep— much deeper than originally thought—which will increase the potential for strong shaking during the next earthquake in this highly populated area. It is clear from the new studies that, even though the probability of a magnitude 8+ Big One along the San Andreas fault is low, California needs to be prepared for the near certainty of a magnitude 6.7 earthquake in the next thirty years.

Additional Resources For more information about the San Andreas fault and the likelihood of it creating a large earthquake, visit U.S. Geological Survey websites: • • •

http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq3/safaultgip.html http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3027/fs2008-3027.pdf http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/states/?region=California

For more details on the Los Angeles Regional Seismic Experiment, visit: •

http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/fact-sheet/fs110-99/

Website for the Southern California Earthquake Center: •

http://www.scec.org/

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E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 7 . 3

How to Prepare for and Survive an Earthquake*

B

eing prepared for an earthquake can reduce the damage to your property and chance of serious injury or loss of life. There is a saying, “earthquakes do not kill people, buildings do.” Most injuries are caused by falling or flying objects. If you live in or visit an earthquake-prone area, you should do the following:

Before an Earthquake 1. Identify potential hazards inside the home. Tall bookshelves should be bolted to the wall, with heavy objects placed on the bottom shelves; glass and china should be in lower cabinets secured with strong latches; heavy pictures and mirrors should not be hung where people sit or sleep; the water heater should be strapped to wall studs and bolted to the floor; strap the refrigerator and latch the doors; attach large televisions to the wall or strap to a table. 2. Create a disaster preparedness plan that includes how to reunite family members who may be separated from one another during the earthquake. Because it is often easier to call long distance after an earthquake, establish an out-ofstate relative or friend to act as the contact person. Also, learn how to turn off all the utilities at your house; flexible gas lines should be used to avoid breaking. Keep an adjustable wrench near the gas main to shut off the gas immediately after an earthquake to avoid fires. 3. Prepare disaster supply kits (keep in a safe place in large, lockable plastic trash container): flashlight and extra batteries, portable radio, first-aid kit and manual, essential medicines, emergency food and water (one gallon per person per day), nonelectric can opener, sleeping bags and tent, fire extinguisher, matches, portable stove and propane, sturdy shoes, cash and credit cards. (Check the condition of batteries, water, and food every six months.) 4. Identify and fix potential weaknesses in your house. Make sure your house is firmly attached to the foundation with anchor bolts; repair any deep cracks in foundations or ceilings. Brick chimneys should be braced and anchored to the roof joists.

During an Earthquake 1. If you are indoors, DROP, COVER, and HOLD ON under a heavy piece of furniture positioned against an inside wall or crouch in a room corner or interior hall and protect your head and neck with your arms (box figure 1). Stay away from windows or anything that could fall on you. If you are in bed, stay there and protect your head with a pillow. In a high-rise building, do not run to exits or stairways that may be damaged or jammed with people; never use the elevator. 2. If you are in an unreinforced building or otherwise unsafe building, it may be better to leave the building. Because most injuries result from people leaving buildings and being hit by falling debris or downed utility lines, be alert to possible dangers.

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BOX 7.3 ■ FIGURE 1 Drop, cover, and hold on while protecting your head and neck with your arms.

3. If you are outdoors, move to an open area away from buildings, street lights, and utility lines until the shaking stops. 4. If you are in a moving vehicle, slow down and drive away from buildings, trees, bridges, ramps, overpasses, and utility lines. Stay in the car until the shaking stops.

After an Earthquake 1. Help anyone who is injured or trapped; do not move seriously injured persons unless they are in immediate danger of further injury. 2. Check for damage to utilities. If you smell gas, turn off gas valves, open the windows, and leave immediately. If electricity is shorting out, turn off the main power switch at the meter box. If water pipes are broken, turn off the supply at the main valve. In an emergency, water from hot water tanks, toilet bowls, and melted ice cubes can be used. Do not flush the toilet until sewage lines are checked. 3. Carefully inspect your chimney for damage to prevent fire and carbon monoxide poisoning. 4. Listen to the radio for the latest emergency information; use your telephone only for emergency calls. 5. Do not travel unnecessarily; avoid low-lying coastal areas (until the threat of a tsunami has passed), landslide areas, and severely damaged structures. 6. Be prepared for aftershocks.

Additional Resources For additional safety information, visit the Dare to Prepare site: •

http://www.daretoprepare.org/

An online version of Putting Down Roots in Earthquake Country gives detailed information on preparing for earthquakes and the science of earthquakes: •

www.earthquakecountry.info/roots/index.php

*From U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and the Red Cross

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most damage (figure 7.28). Such a system has been developed in southern California, and there are plans for integrating other regional seismic networks into an Advanced National Seismic System (ANSS) to monitor earthquakes throughout the United States if adequate funding can be obtained. A major goal of the ANSS program is to locate strongmotion seismometers in buildings, bridges, canals, and pipelines to provide valuable information on how a structure moves during an earthquake to help engineers build more earthquakeresistant structures. One key to reducing damage and loss of life is to create stronger structures that resist catastrophic damage during a major earthquake. A future goal of the program is to minimize risk by developing an early warning system. With a wide enough distribution of real-time seismometers, it is technically possible for an urban area to get an early warning of an impending earthquake if the earthquake’s epicenter is far enough away from the city. For example, if an earthquake occurred 100 kilometers from downtown Los Angeles and its waves are moving at 4 kilometers per second, the system would have 25 seconds to process and analyze the data and broadcast it as an early warning. Even seconds of warning could be enough to shut off main gas pipelines, shut down subway trains, and give schoolchildren time to get under their desks. Japan has successfully used such a system for detecting offshore earthquakes that will shut down the Bullet Train; it is also trying to pursue other ways to use the system to give early warnings to save lives in a major earthquake.

Summary Earthquakes usually occur when rocks break and move along a fault to release strain that has gradually built up in the rock. Volcanic activity can also cause earthquakes. Deep quakes may be caused by mineral transformations. Seismic waves move out from the earthquake’s focus. Body waves (P waves and S waves) move through Earth’s interior, and surface waves (Love and Rayleigh waves) move on Earth’s surface. Seismographs record seismic waves on seismograms, which can be used to determine an earthquake’s strength, location, and depth of focus. Most earthquakes are shallow-focus quakes, but some occur as deep as 670 kilometers below Earth’s surface. The time interval between first arrivals of P and S waves is used to determine the distance between the seismograph and the epicenter. Three or more stations are needed to determine the location of earthquakes. Earthquake intensity is determined by assessing damage and is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. Earthquake magnitude, determined by the amplitude of seismic waves on a seismogram, is measured on the Richter scale. Moment magnitudes, determined by field work, are widely used today and often are larger than Richter magnitudes.

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CISN ShakeMap: Magnitude 6.7 GORMAN

PALMDALE CASTAI C

OJAI

WRIGHTWOOD VENTURA

NORTHRIDGE PASADENA LOS ANGELES

SANTA CRUZ IS. SANTA MONICA

LONG BEACH IRVINE miles 0

10

20

SHAKING:

30

WEAK

STRONG

SEVERE

FIGURE 7.28 Map shows the amount of shaking that occurred after the 1994 Northridge earthquake. The ability to create maps within minutes after an earthquake that show the location and severity of maximum ground shaking (ShakeMap) was developed in 1995 by the U.S. Geological Survey. Had this ShakeMap been available minutes after the 1994 Northridge earthquake, emergency personnel could have been immediately directed to the most damaged areas. Image courtesy David Wald, U.S. Geological Survey

The most noticeable effects of earthquakes are ground motion and displacement (which destroy buildings and thereby injure or kill people), fire, landslides, and tsunamis. Aftershocks can continue to cause damage months after the main shock. Earthquakes are generally distributed in belts. The circumPacific belt contains most of the world’s earthquakes. Earthquakes also occur on the Mediterranean-Himalayan belt, the crest of the mid-oceanic ridge, and in association with basaltic volcanoes. Benioff zones of shallow-, intermediate-, and deep-focus earthquakes are associated with andesitic volcanoes, oceanic trenches, and the edges of continents or island arcs. The concept of plate tectonics explains most earthquakes as being caused by interactions between two plates at their boundaries. Plate boundaries are generally defined by bands of earthquakes. Divergent plate boundaries are marked by a narrow zone of shallow earthquakes along normal faults, usually in a rift valley. Transform boundaries are marked by shallow quakes caused by strike-slip motion along one or more faults. Convergent boundaries where continents collide are marked by a very broad zone of shallow quakes. Convergent boundaries involving deep subduction are marked by Benioff zones of quakes caused by tension, underthrusting, and compression. The distribution of quakes indicates subduction angles of a down-going plate. The subduction angle is probably controlled by plate density and rate of plate convergence.

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Determining the probability of an earthquake occurring uses the measurement of rock properties near faults, slip rate studies, and paleoseismology investigations to determine the recurrence interval of quakes along individual faults.

12. The elastic rebound theory a. explains folding of rocks b. explains the behavior of seismic waves c. involves the sudden release of progressively stored strain in rocks, causing movement along a fault d. none of the preceding

Terms to Remember aftershock 171 Benioff zone 175 body wave 159 circum-Pacific belt 175 depth of focus 163 earthquake 158 elastic rebound theory 158 epicenter 159 focus 159 intensity 163 island arc 175 Love wave 160 magnitude 164 Mediterranean-Himalayan belt 175

modified Mercalli scale 163 moment magnitude 164 P wave 159 Rayleigh wave 160 Richter scale 164 S wave 159 seismic sea wave 171 seismic wave 158 seismogram 161 seismograph 161 surface wave 159 travel-time curve 161 tsunami (seismic sea wave) 171

13. The point within Earth where seismic waves originate is called the a. focus

b. epicenter

c. fault scarp

d. fold

14. P waves are a. compressional

b. transverse

c. tensional 15. What is the minimum number of seismic stations needed to determine the location of the epicenter of an earthquake? a. 1

b. 2

c. 3

d. 5

e. 10 16. The Richter scale measures a. intensity b. magnitude c. damage and destruction caused by the earthquake d. the number of people killed by the earthquake 17. Benioff zones are found near

Testing Your Knowledge Use the following questions to prepare for exams based on this chapter. 1. Describe in detail how earthquake epicenters are located by seismograph stations. 2. What causes earthquakes? 3. Compare and contrast the concepts of intensity and magnitude of earthquakes. 4. Name and describe the various types of seismic waves. 5. Discuss the distribution of earthquakes with regard to location and depth of focus. 6. Show with a sketch how the concept of plate tectonics can explain the distribution of earthquakes in a Benioff zone and on the crest of the mid-oceanic ridge. 7. Describe several techniques that may help scientists predict earthquakes.

a. midocean ridges b. ancient mountain chains c. interiors of continents d. oceanic trenches 18. Most earthquakes at divergent plate boundaries are a. shallow focus b. intermediate focus c. deep focus d. all of the preceding 19. Most earthquakes at convergent plate boundaries are a. shallow focus

b. intermediate focus

c. deep focus

d. all of the preceding

20. A zone of shallow earthquakes along normal faults is typical of a. divergent boundaries b. transform boundaries c. subduction zones

d. collisional boundaries

21. A seismic gap is

8. How may the timing of earthquakes someday be controlled?

a. the time between large earthquakes

9. Describe several ways that earthquakes cause damage. 10. How do earthquakes cause tsunami?

b. a segment of an active fault where earthquakes have not occurred for a long time

11. What are aftershocks?

c. the center of a plate where earthquakes rarely happen

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www.mhhe.com/carlson9e 22. Which of the following is not true of tsunami? a. very long wavelength b. high wave height in deep water c. very fast moving d. continued flooding after wave crest hits shore

Expanding Your Knowledge 1. What are some arguments in favor of and against predicting earthquakes? What would happen in your community if a prediction were made today that within a month, a large earthquake would occur nearby? 2. Most earthquakes occur at plate boundaries where plates interact with each other. How might earthquakes be caused in the interior of a rigid plate? 3. How can you prepare for an earthquake in your own home? 4. Suppose you want to check for earthquake danger before buying a new home. How can you check the regional geology for earthquake dangers? The actual building site? The home itself?

Exploring Web Resources www.mhhe.com/carlson9e McGraw-Hill’s website for Physical Geology: Earth Revealed 9th edition features a wide variety of study aids, such as animations, quizzes, answers to the end-of-chapter multiple choice questions, additional readings and Google Earth exercises, Internet exercises, and much more. The URLs listed in this book are given as links in chapter web pages, making it easy to go to a website without typing in its URL. http://quake.wr.usgs.gov/hazprep/BayAreaInsert/ U.S. Geological Survey, 1990. The next big earthquake. (This magazinelike pamphlet also is available free from Earthquakes, USGS, 345 Middlefield Road, Menlo Park, CA 94025.) http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq3/ U.S. Geological Survey, 1990. The San Andreas fault system. Professional Paper 1515. www.geophys.washington.edu/seismosurfing.html Exhaustive list of worldwide Internet sites for information about earthquakes.

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http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/faq.php Frequently asked questions about recent earthquakes, maintained by the U.S. Geological Survey. http://shakemovie.caltech.edu/ Caltech’s Shake Movie site provides near real-time visualizations of recent seismic events in Southern California. www.seismo.unr.edu/ University of Nevada, Reno Seismological Laboratory site contains information about recent earthquakes, earthquake preparedness, and links to other earthquake sites. www.seismo.berkeley.edu/seismo/Homepage.html Seismographic information page maintained by University of California– Berkeley that has many links to other earthquake sites (particularly in California), three-dimensional earthquake movie, Northridge earthquake rupture movies, and information on earthquake preparedness. http://www.sciencecourseware.org/VirtualEarthquake/ California State University, Los Angeles Virtual Earthquake. Create and analyze an earthquake. http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq4/severitygip.html General information about the size of an earthquake. Discussion of Richter and Mercalli scales. http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/dynamic.html General information about plate tectonics. http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/circular/c1187/ U.S. Geological Survey online version of Tsunami Circular. http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/PNGhome.html U.S. Geological Survey web page gives information about the devastating July 17, 1998, tsunami at Papua, New Guinea, and links to other sites.

Animations This chapter includes the following animations on the book’s website at www.mhhe.com/carlson9e. 7.3 Earthquake focus 7.4 Earthquake waves 7.5 Seismometer 7.6 Seismometer 7.7, 7.8, 7.9 Locating earthquake epicenter

http://quake.wr.usgs.gov/ U.S. Geological Survey Earthquake Hazards Program. Gives information on reducing earthquake hazards, earthquake preparedness, latest quake information, historical earthquakes, and how earthquakes are studied. Also a good starting place for links to other earthquake sites.

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Kaibab Limestone Coconino Sandstone

Supai Formation

Redwall Limestone

Bright Angel Shale

Tapeats

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The Key to the Past Relative Time Principles Used to Determine Relative Age Unconformities Correlation The Standard Geologic Time Scale

mestone

Numerical Age Isotopic Dating Uses of Isotopic Dating

Combining Relative and Numerical Ages Age of the Earth Comprehending Geologic Time

Summary

T

he immensity of geologic time is hard for humans to perceive. It is unusual for someone to live a hundred years, but a person would have to live 10,000 times that long to observe a geologic process that takes a million years. In this chapter, we try to help you develop a sense of the vast amounts of time over which geologic processes have been at work. Geologists working in the field or with maps or illustrations in a laboratory are concerned with relative time— unraveling the sequence in which geologic events occurred. For instance, a geologist looking at the photo of Arizona’s Grand Canyon on the facing page can determine that the tilted sedimentary rocks are older than the horizontal sedimentary rocks and that the lower layers of the horizontal sedimentary rocks are older than the layers above them. But this tells us nothing about how long ago any of the rocks formed. To determine how many years ago rocks formed, we need the specialized techniques of radioactive isotope dating. Through isotopic dating, we have been able to determine that the rocks in the lowermost part of the Grand Canyon are well over a billion years old. Grand Canyon, Arizona. Horizontal Paleozoic beds (top of photo) overlie tilted Precambrian beds (Grand Canyon Series) and older, Precambrian metamorphic rock (Vishnu Schist). Photo © Craig Aurness/Corbis

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This chapter explains how to apply several basic principles to decipher a sequence of events responsible for geologic features. These principles can be applied to many aspects of geology—as, for example, in understanding geologic structures (chapter 6). Understanding the complex history of mountain belts (chapter 5) also requires knowing the techniques for determining relative ages of rocks. Determining age relationships between geographically widely separated rock units is necessary for understanding the geologic history of a region, a continent, or the whole Earth. Substantiation of the plate-tectonics theory depends on

intercontinental correlation of rock units and geologic events, piecing together evidence that the continents were once one great body. Widespread use of fossils led to the development of the standard geologic time scale. Originally based on relative age relationships, the subdivisions of the standard geologic time scale have now been assigned numerical ages in thousands, millions, and billions of years through isotopic dating. Think of the geologic time scale as a sort of calendar to which events and rock units can be referred. Its major subdivisions are referred to elsewhere in this book.

THE KEY TO THE PAST

Hutton’s concept that geologic processes operating at present are the same processes that operated in the past eventually became known as the principle of uniformitarianism. The principle is stated more succinctly as “The present is the key to the past.” The term uniformitarianism is a bit unfortunate, because it suggests that changes take place at a uniform rate. Hutton recognized that sudden, violent events, such as a major, short-lived volcanic eruption, also influence Earth’s history. Many geologists prefer actualism in place of uniformitarianism. The term actualism comes closer to conveying Hutton’s principle that the same processes and natural laws that operated in the past are those we can actually observe or infer from observation as operating at present. It is based on the assumption, central to the sciences, that physical laws are independent of time and location. Under present usage, uniformitarianism has the same meaning as actualism for most geologists. We now realize that geology involves time periods much greater than a few thousand years. But how long? For instance, were rocks near the bottom of the Grand Canyon (chapter opening photo) formed closer to 10,000 or 100,000 or 1,000,000 or 1,000,000,000 years ago? What geologists needed was some “clock” that began running when rocks formed. Such a “clock” was found shortly after radioactivity was discovered. Dating based on radioactivity (discussed later in this chapter) allows us to determine a rock’s numerical age (also known as absolute age)—age given in years or some other unit of time. Geologists working in the field or in a laboratory with maps, cross sections, and photographs are more often concerned with relative time, the sequence in which events took place, rather than the number of years involved. These statements show the difference between numerical age and relative time: “The American Revolutionary War took place after the signing of the Magna Carta but before World War II.” This statement gives the time of an event (the Revolutionary War) relative to other events. But in terms of numerical age, we could say: “The Revolutionary War took place about two and a half centuries ago.” Note that a numerical age does not have to be an exact age, merely age given in units of time. Because most geologic problems are concerned with the sequence of events, we discuss relative age first.

Until the 1800s, people living in Western culture did not question the religious perception of Earth being only a few thousand years old. On the other hand, Chinese and Hindu cultures believed the age of Earth was vast beyond comprehension— more in line with what has now been determined scientifically. In the Christendom of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, formation of all rocks and other geologic events were placed into a biblical chronology. This required that features we observe in rocks and landscapes were created supernaturally and catastrophically. The sedimentary rocks with marine fossils (clams, fish, etc.) that we find in mountains thousands of meters above sea level were believed to have been deposited by a worldwide flood (Noah’s flood) that inundated all of Earth, including its highest mountains, in a matter of days. Because no known physical laws could account for such events, they were attributed to divine intervention. In the eighteenth century, however, James Hutton, a Scotsman often regarded as the father of geology, realized that geologic features could be explained through presentday processes. He recognized that our mountains are not permanent but have been carved into their present shapes and will be worn down by the slow agents of erosion now working on them. He realized that the great thicknesses of sedimentary rock we find on the continents are products of sediment removed from land and deposited as mud and sand in seas. The time required for these processes to take place had to be incredibly long. Hutton broke from conventional thinking that Earth is less than 6,000 years old when he wrote in 1788, “We find no sign of a beginning—no prospect for an end.” His writings were not widely read, but a few people realized the logic of his thesis and how important it was for understanding Earth. In the early 1800s, his ideas were given widespread attention by Charles Lyell in a landmark book, Principles of Geology. Hutton’s concept of geological processes requiring vast amounts of time led to the development of evolutionary theory and the revolutionizing of biological sciences. Charles Darwin was among those influenced by Lyell’s writing. His evolutionary theory involving survival of the fittest, published in the mid-1800s, required the great amount of time that Hutton envisioned. So Hutton’s ideas became not only a foundation for geology but for the life sciences as well.

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RELATIVE TIME The geology of an area may seem, at first glance, to be hopelessly complex. A nongeologist might think it impossible to decipher the sequence of events that created such a geologic pattern; however, a geologist has learned to approach seemingly formidable problems by breaking them down to a number of simple problems. (In fact, a geologic education trains students in a broad spectrum of problem-solving techniques, useful for a wide variety of applications and career opportunities.) As an example, the geology of the Grand Canyon, shown in the chapter opening photo, can be analyzed in four parts: (1) horizontal layers of rock; (2) inclined layers; (3) rock underlying the inclined layers (plutonic and metamorphic rock); and (4) the canyon itself, carved into these rocks. After you have studied the following section, return to the photo of the Grand Canyon and see if you can determine the sequence of geologic events that took place.

Principles Used to Determine Relative Age Most of the individual parts of the larger problem are solved by applying several simple principles while studying the exposed rock. In this way, the sequence of events or the relative time involved can be determined. Contacts are particularly useful

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for deciphering the geologic history of an area. (Contacts, as described in previous chapters, are the surfaces separating two different rock types or rocks of different ages.) To explain various principles, we will use a fictitious place that bears some resemblance to the Grand Canyon. We will call this place, represented by the block diagram of figure 8.1, Minor Canyon. The formation names are also fictitious. (Formations, as described in chapter 14, are bodies of rock of considerable thickness with recognizable characteristics that make each distinguishable from adjacent rock units. They are named after local geographic features, such as towns or landmarks. Grand Canyon’s formation names are shown on the chapter’s opening photo.) Note the contacts between the tilted formations, the horizontal formations, the granite, and the dike. What sequence of events might be responsible for the geology of Minor Canyon? (You might briefly study the block diagram and see how much of the geologic history of the area you can decipher before reading further.) Our interpretations are based mainly on layered rock (sedimentary or volcanic). The subdiscipline of geology that uses interrelationships between layered rock (mostly) or sediment to interpret the history of an area or region is known as stratigraphy. Four of stratigraphy’s principles are used to determine the geologic history of a locality or a region. These are the principles of (1) original horizontality, (2) superposition, (3) lateral continuity, and (4) cross-cutting relationships. These principles will be used in interpreting figure 8.1.

Bed that tapers

nd kla Bir Fm

nton

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B ir k la

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nct Fm ion

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L im e r G u lc h S k in n e m F v il le H a m li n Fm r C it y Fo s te

G ra n

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Contact Contact metamorphosed metamorphosed zone zone

FIGURE 8.1 Block diagram representing the Minor Canyon area. (Tilted layers that are exposed in the canyon and are younger than the Leet Junction Formation are not named because they are not discussed or part of the figures that follow.)

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Original Horizontality

Lateral Continuity

The principle of original horizontality (as described in chapter 14) states that beds of sediment deposited in water formed as horizontal or nearly horizontal layers. (The sedimentary rocks in figure 8.1 were originally deposited in a marine environment.) Note in figure 8.1 that the Larsonton Formation and overlying rock units (Foster City Formation, Hamlinville Formation, and Skinner Gulch Limestone) are horizontal. Evidently, their original horizontal attitude has not changed since they were deposited. However, the Lutgrad, Birkland, Tarburg, and Leet Junction Formations must have been tilted after they were deposited as horizontal layers. By applying the principle of original horizontality, we have determined that a geologic event—tilting of bedrock—occurred after the Leet Junction, Tarburg, Birkland, and Lutgrad Formations were deposited on a sea floor. We can also see that the tilting event did not affect the Larsonton and overlying formations. (A reasonable conclusion is that tilting was accompanied by uplift and erosion, all before renewed deposition of younger sediment.)

The principle of lateral continuity states that an original sedimentary layer extends laterally until it tapers or thins at its edges. This is what we expect at the edges of a depositional environment, or where one type of sediment interfingers laterally with another type of sediment as environments change. In figure 8.1, the bottom bed of the Hamlinville Formation (represented by red dots), tapers as we would expect from this principle. We are not seeing any other layers taper, either because we are not seeing their full extent within the diagram or because they have been truncated (cut off abruptly) due to later events.

Superposition The principle of superposition states that within a sequence of undisturbed sedimentary or volcanic rocks, the oldest layer is at the bottom and layers are progressively younger upward in the stack. Obviously, if sedimentary rock is formed by sediment settling onto the sea floor, then the first (or bottom) layer must be there before the next layer can be deposited on top of it. The principle of superposition also applies to layers formed by multiple lava flows, where one lava flow is superposed on a previously solidified flow. Applying the principle of superposition, we can determine that the Skinner Gulch Limestone is the youngest layer of sedimentary rock in the Minor Canyon area. The Hamlinville Formation is the next oldest formation, and the Larsonton Formation is the oldest of the still-horizontal sedimentary rock units. Similarly, we assume that the inclined layers were originally horizontal (by the first principle). By mentally restoring them to their horizontal position (or “untilting” them), we can see that the youngest formation of the sequence is the Leet Junction Formation and that the Tarburg, Birkland, and Lutgrad Formations are progressively older.

TABLE 8.1

Cross-Cutting Relationships The fourth principle can be applied to determine the remaining age relationships at Minor Canyon. The principle of crosscutting relationships states that a disrupted pattern is older than the cause of disruption. A layer cake (the pattern) has to be baked (established) before it can be sliced (the disruption). To apply this principle, look for disruptions in patterns of rock. Note that the valley in figure 8.1 is carved into the horizontal rocks as well as into the underlying tilted rocks. The sedimentary beds on either side of the valley appear to have been sliced off, or truncated, by the valley. (The principle of lateral continuity tells us that sedimentary beds normally become thinner toward the edges rather than stop abruptly.) So the event that caused the valley must have come after the sedimentation responsible for deposition of the Skinner Gulch Limestone and underlying formations. That is, the valley is younger than these layers. We can apply the principle of cross-cutting relationships to contacts elsewhere in figure 8.1, with the results shown in table 8.1. We can now describe the geological history of the Minor Canyon area represented in figure 8.1 on the basis of what we have learned through applying the principles. Figures 8.2 through 8.11 show how the area changed over time, progressing from oldest to youngest events. By superposition, we know that the Lutgrad Formation, the lowermost rock unit in the tilted sequence, must be the oldest of the sedimentary rocks as well as the oldest rock unit in the diagram. From the principle of original horizontality, we infer that these layers must have been tilted after they formed. Figure 8.2 shows initial sedimentation of the Lutgrad Formation tak-

Relative Ages of Features in Figure 8.1 Determinable by Cross-Cutting Relationships

Feature

Is Younger Than

But Older Than

Valley (canyon) Foster City Formation Dike Larsonton Formation Granite

Skinner Gulch Limestone Dike Larsonton Formation Leet Junction Formation and granite Tarburg Formation

Hamlinville Formation Foster City Formation Dike Larsonton Formation

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Water

nction

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Tarbu

Sea floor m

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FIGURE 8.2

Birkla

The area during deposition of the initial sedimentary layer of the Lutgrad Formation.

m

rad F

Lutg

ing place. If the entire depositional basin were shown, the layer would be tapered at its edges, according to the principle of lateral continuity. Superposition indicates that the Birkland Formation was deposited on top of the Lutgrad Formation. Deposition of the Tarburg and Leet Junction Formations followed in turn (figure 8.3). The truncation of bedding in the Lutgrad, Birkland, and Tarburg Formations by the granite tells us that the granite intruded sometime after the Tarburg Formation was formed (this is an intrusive contact). Although figure 8.4 shows that the granite was emplaced before tilting of the layered rock, we cannot determine from looking at figure 8.1 whether the granite intruded the sedimentary rocks before or after tilting. We can, however, determine through cross-cutting relationships that tilting and intrusion of the granite occurred before deposition of the Larsonton Formation. Figure 8.5 shows the rocks in the area have been tilted and erosion has taken place. Sometime later, sedimentation was renewed, and the lowermost layer of the Larsonton Formation was deposited on the erosion surface, as shown in figure 8.6. Contacts representing buried erosion surfaces such as these are called unconformities and are discussed in more detail in the Unconformities section of this chapter. After the Larsonton Formation was deposited, an unknown additional thickness of sedimentary layers was deposited, as shown in figure 8.7. This can be determined through application of cross-cutting relationships. The dike is truncated by the Foster City Formation; therefore, it must have extended into some rocks that are no longer present, such as shown in figure 8.8. Figure 8.9 shows the area after the erosion that truncated the dike took place.

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FIGURE 8.3 The area after deposition of the four formations shown but before intrusion of the granite.

Leet

m

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Tarbu

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Birkla

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Lutg

FIGURE 8.4

Contact metamorphosed zone

The area before layers were tilted and after intrusion of granite, if the intrusion took place before tilting.

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Rock removed by erosion Previous land surface Larsonton sediment

Water

Sea floor

Erosion surface

Granite

FIGURE 8.5

Granite

The area before deposition of the Larsonton Formation. Dashed lines show rock probably lost through erosion.

FIGURE 8.6 The area at the time the Larsonton Formation was being deposited.

Rock later removed by erosion Larsonton Fm

Rock later removed by erosion

Larsonton Fm

?

FIGURE 8.7 Area before intrusion of dike. Thickness of layers above the Larsonton Formation is indeterminate.

Dike

FIGURE 8.8 Dike intruded into the Larsonton Formation and preexisting, overlying layers of indeterminate thickness.

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Larsonton Fm

Sediment for Foster City Fm

Sea floor

195 Water

Dike

FIGURE 8.9 The area after rock overlying the Larsonton Formation, along with part of the dike, was removed by erosion.

Once again, sedimentation took place as the lowermost layer of the Foster City Formation blanketed the erosion surface (figure 8.10). Sedimentation continued until the uppermost layer (top of the Skinner Gulch Limestone) was deposited. At some later time, the area was raised above sea level, and the stream began to carve the canyon (figure 8.11). Because the valley sides truncated the youngest layers of rock, we can determine from figure 8.1 that the last event was the carving of the valley. Note that there are limits on how precisely we can determine the relative age of the granite body. It definitely intruded

Dike

FIGURE 8.10 Sediment being deposited that will become part of the Foster City Formation.

before the Larsonton Formation was deposited and after the Tarburg Formation was deposited. As no contacts can be observed between the Leet Junction Formation and the granite, we cannot say whether the granite is younger or older than the Leet Junction Formation. Nor, as mentioned earlier, can we determine whether the granite formed before, during, or after the tilting of the lower sequence of sedimentary rocks.

Stream

Skinner Gulch Limestone Hamlinville Fm

Fo s t Lars

er C

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onto

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n Fm

Tarburg Fm

FIGURE 8.11 Dike

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The same area after all of the rocks had formed and then had risen above sea level. The stream is beginning to form the valley visible in figure 8.1.

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Now, if you take another look at the chapter opening photo of the Grand Canyon (and figure 8.16), you should be able to determine the sequence of events. The sequence (going from older to younger) is as follows. Regional metamorphism took place resulting in the Vishnu Schist of the lower part of the Grand Canyon (you cannot tell these are schists from the photograph). Erosion followed and leveled the land surface. Sedimentation followed, resulting in the Grand Canyon Series rocks. These sedimentary layers were subsequently tilted (they were also faulted, although this is not evident in the photograph). Once again, erosion took place. The lowermost of the presently horizontal layers of sedimentary rock was deposited (the Tapeats Sandstone followed by the Bright Angel Shale). Subsequently, each of the layers progressively higher up the sequence formed. Finally, the stream (the Colorado River) eroded its way through the rock, carving the Grand Canyon.

Other characteristics of geology can be applied to help determine relative ages (figure 8.12). The tilted layers in figure 8.12 immediately adjacent to the granite body have been contact metamorphosed (think “seared” or “baked”). This indicates that the Tarburg Formation and older formations shown in figure 8.1 had to be there before intrusion of the hot, granite magma. The base of the Larsonton Formation in contact with the granite would not be contact metamorphosed because it was deposited after the granite had cooled (and exposed by erosion). The principle of inclusion states that fragments included in a host rock are older than the host rock. In figure 8.12, the

Pebbles of granite

Earth’s surface

Granite

Disconformity

Dashed lines indicate correlation of rock units between the two areas

Schematic representation of a disconformity. The disconformity is in the block on the right.

granite contains inclusions of the tilted sedimentary rock. Therefore, the granite is younger than the tilted rock. The rock overlying the granite has granite pebbles in it. Therefore, the granite is older than the horizontal sedimentary rock.

Unconformities In this and earlier chapters, we noted the importance of contacts for deciphering the geologic history of an area. In chapters 11 and 14 we described intrusive contacts and sedimentary contacts. Faults (described in chapter 6) are a third type of contact. The final important type of contact is an unconformity. Each type of contact has a very different implication about what took place in the geologic past. An unconformity is a surface (or contact) that represents a gap in the geologic record, with the rock unit immediately above the contact being considerably younger than the rock beneath. Most unconformities are buried erosion surfaces. Unconformities are classified into three types—disconformities, angular unconformities, and nonconformities—with each type having important implications for the geologic history of the area in which it occurs.

Disconformities

Contact metamorphosed zone

FIGURE 8.12 Age relationships indicated by contact metamorphism, inclusions (xenoliths) in granite, and pebbles of granite.

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Sequence shows a break in the record as indicated by correlatable fossils

FIGURE 8.13

Other Time Relationships

Inclusion in granite (xenolith)

Sequence of sedimentary rock with complete record of deposition

In a disconformity, the contact representing missing rock strata separates beds that are parallel to one another. Probably what has happened is that older rocks were eroded away parallel to the horizontal bedding plane; renewed deposition later buried the erosion surface (figure 8.13). Because it often appears to be just another sedimentary contact (or bedding plane) in a sequence of sedimentary rock, a disconformity is the hardest type of unconformity to detect in

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the field. Rarely, a telltale weathered zone is preserved immediately below a disconformity. Usually, the disconformity can be detected only by studying fossils from the beds in a sequence of sedimentary rocks. If certain fossil beds are absent, indicating that a portion of geologic time is missing from the sedimentary record, it can be inferred that a disconformity is present in the sequence. Although it is most likely that some rock layers are missing because erosion followed deposition, in some instances neither erosion nor deposition took place for a significant amount of geologic time.

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Angular Unconformities An angular unconformity is a contact in which younger strata overlie an erosion surface on tilted or folded layered rock. It implies the following sequence of events, from oldest to youngest: (1) deposition and lithification of sedimentary rock (or solidification of successive lava flows if the rock is volcanic); (2) uplift accompanied by folding or tilting of the layers; (3) erosion; and (4) renewed deposition (usually preceded by subsidence) on top of the erosion surface (figure 8.14). Figures 8.1 and 8.12 also show angular unconformities but with simple tilting rather than folding of the older beds.

Nonconformities

Sea level

A nonconformity is a contact in which an erosion surface on plutonic or metamorphic rock has been covered by younger sedimentary or volcanic rock (figure 8.15). A nonconformity generally indicates deep or long-continued erosion before subsequent burial, because metamorphic or plutonic rocks form at considerable depths in Earth’s crust. The geologic history implied by a nonconformity, shown in figure 8.15, is (1) crystallization of igneous or metamorphic rock at depth; (2) erosion of at least several kilometers of overlying rock (the great amount of erosion further implies considerable uplift of this portion of Earth’s crust); and (3) deposition

A Sedimentation

B Folding

Erosion surface

C Erosion

Sea level Angular conformity Younger horizontal beds

New layers of sediment Angular unconformity

E

D Renewed deposition of sediment

FIGURE 8.14 A particular sequence of events (A–D) producing an angular unconformity. Marine deposited sediments are uplifted and folded (probably during plate-tectonic convergence). Erosion removes the upper layers. The area drops below sea level (or sea level rises) and renewed sedimentation takes place. (An angular unconformity can also involve terrestrial sedimentation.) (E) is an angular unconformity at Cody, Wyoming. Photo by C. C. Plummer

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Tilted older red beds

Rock debris eroded from above covers red beds

Geologist’s View

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Sea level

Erosion surface

D

Pluton

Metamorphosed rock C During mountain-building episode: Intense deformation, intrusion of a pluton, and metamorphism of lower rocks

B Deep burial

A Sedimentation Part eroded away

Plutonic rock

Uplift accompanied by erosion

Paleozoic sedimentary rock Erosion surface

Nonconformity E Continued erosion Sea level

Precambrian metamorphic rock

Nonconformity F

Renewed deposition

G

FIGURE 8.15 (A–F) Sequence of events implied by a nonconformity underlain by metamorphic and plutonic rock. (G) A nonconformity in Grand Canyon, Arizona. Paleozoic sedimentary rocks overlie vertically foliated Precambrian metamorphic rocks. Photo by C. C. Plummer

of new sediment, which eventually becomes sedimentary rock, on the ancient erosion surface. Figures 8.1 and 8.12 also show nonconformities; however, these represent erosion to a relatively shallow depth as the rocks intruded by the pluton have not been regionally metamorphosed, as was the case for those in figure 8.15.

Correlation In geology, correlation usually means determining time equivalency of rock units. Rock units may be correlated within a region, a continent, and even between continents. Various

methods of correlation are described along with examples of how the principles we described earlier in this chapter are used to determine whether rocks in one area are older or younger than rocks in another area.

Physical Continuity Finding physical continuity—that is, being able to trace physically the course of a rock unit—is one way to correlate rocks between two different places. The prominent white layer of cliff-forming rock in figure 8.16 is the Coconino Sandstone, exposed along the upper part of the Grand Canyon. It can be seen all the way across the photograph. You can physically

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Coconino Sandstone

Bright Angel Shale

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50

100 Km

Navajo Sandstone

ZION AREA GRAND CANYON

Coconino Sandstone

Vishnu Schist

FIGURE 8.16 Schematic cross section through part of the Colorado Plateau showing the relationship of the Coconino Sandstone, the white cliff-forming unit in the left photo, in Grand Canyon to the Navajo Sandstone, white unit in the right photo, at Zion National Park. Photos by C. C. Plummer

follow this unit for several tens of kilometers, thus verifying that, wherever it is exposed in the Grand Canyon, it is the same rock unit. The Grand Canyon is an ideal location for correlating rock units by physical continuity. However, it is not possible to follow this rock unit from the Grand Canyon into another region because it is not continuously exposed. We usually must use other methods to correlate rock units between regions.

Similarity of Rock Types Under some circumstances, correlation between two regions can be made by assuming that similar rock types in two regions formed at the same time. This method must be used with extreme caution, especially if the rocks being correlated are common ones. To show why correlation by similarity of rock type does not always work, we can try to correlate the white, cliff-forming Coconino Sandstone in the Grand Canyon with a rock unit of similar appearance in Zion National Park about 100 kilometers away (figure 8.16). Both units are white sandstone. Crossbedding indicates that both were once a series of sand dunes. It is tempting to correlate them and conclude that both formed at the same time. But if you were to drive or walk from the rim of

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the Grand Canyon (where the Coconino Sandstone is below you), you would get to Zion by ascending a series of layers of sedimentary rock stacked on one another. In other words, you would be getting into progressively younger rock, as shown diagrammatically in figure 8.16. In short, you have shown through superposition that the sandstone in Zion (called the Navajo Sandstone) is younger than the Coconino Sandstone. Correlation by similarity of rock types is more reliable if a very unusual sequence of rocks is involved. If you find in one area a layer of green shale on top of a red sandstone that, in turn, overlies basalt of a former lava flow and then find the same sequence in another area, you probably would be correct in concluding that the two sequences formed at essentially the same time. When the hypothesis of continental drift was first proposed (see chapter 1), important evidence was provided by correlating a sequence of rocks (figure 8.17) consisting of glacially deposited sedimentary rock (tillites, described in chapter 19 on glaciation), overlain by continental sandstones, shales, and coal beds. These strata are in turn overlain by basalt flows. The sequence is found in parts of South America, Australia, Africa, Antarctica, and India. It is very unlikely that an identical sequence of rocks could have formed on each of the continents

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Continental sandstones, shales, and coal beds

Glossopteris fossils

Tillites (late Paleozoic)

FIGURE 8.17 Rock sequences similar to this are found in India, Africa, South America, Australia, and Antarctica. The rocks in each of these localities contain the fossil plant Glossopteris.

if they were widely separated, as they are at present. Therefore, the continents on which the sequence is found are likely to have been part of a single, super-continent on which the rocks were deposited. Fossils found in these rocks further strengthened the correlation. In some regions, a key bed, a very distinctive layer, can be used to correlate rocks over great distances. An example is a layer of volcanic ash produced from a very large eruption and distributed over a significant portion of a continent.

Correlation by Fossils Fossils are common in sedimentary rock, and their presence is important for correlation. Plants and animals that lived at the time the rock formed were buried by sediment, and their fossil remains are preserved in sedimentary rock. Most of the fossil species found in rock layers are now extinct—99.9% of all species that ever lived are extinct. (The concept of species for fossils is similar to that in biology.) In a thick sequence of sedimentary rock layers, the fossils nearer the bottom (that is, in the older rock) are more unlike today’s plants and animals than are those near the top. As early as the end of the eighteenth century, naturalists realized that the fossil remains of creatures of a series of “former worlds” were preserved in Earth’s sedimentary rock layers. In the early nineteenth century, a self-educated English surveyor named William Smith realized that different sedimentary layers are characterized by distinctive fossil species and that fossil species succeed one another through the layers in a predictable order. Smith’s discovery of this principle of faunal succession allowed rock layers in different places to be correlated based on their fossils. We now understand that faunal succession works because there is an evolutionary history to life on Earth. Species evolve, exist for a time, and go extinct. Because the same species never evolves twice (extinction is forever), any period of time in Earth history can be identified by the species that lived at that time. Paleontologists, specialists in the study of fossils, have patiently and meticulously over the years identified many thousands of species of fossils and determined the time sequence in which they existed. Therefore, sedimentary rock layers anywhere in the world can be

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assigned to their correct place in geologic history by identifying the fossils they contain. Ideally, a geologist hopes to find an index fossil, a fossil from a very short-lived, geographically widespread species known to exist during a specific period of geologic time. A single index fossil allows the geologist to correlate the rock in which it is found with all other rock layers that contain that fossil. Many fossils are of little use in time determination because the species thrived during too large a portion of geologic time. Sharks, for instance, have been in the oceans for a long time, so discovering an ordinary shark’s tooth in a rock is not very helpful in determining the rock’s relative age. A single fossil that is not an index fossil is not very useful for determining the age of the rock it is in. However, finding several species of fossils in a layer of rock is generally more useful for dating rocks than a single fossil is, because the sediment must have been deposited at a time when all the species represented existed. Figure 8.18 depicts five species of fossils, each of which existed over a long time span. Where various combinations of these fossils are found in three rocks, the time of formation of each rock can be assigned to a narrow span of time. Some fossils are restricted in geographic occurrence, representing organisms adapted to special environments. But many former organisms apparently lived over most of the Earth, and fossil assemblages from these may be used for worldwide correlation. Fossils in the lowermost horizontal layers of the Grand Canyon are comparable to ones collected in Wales, Great Britain, and many other places in the world (the trilobites in figure 8.19 are an example). We can, therefore, correlate these rock units and say they formed during the same general span of geologic time.

Time intervals over which species existed

First area Second area

Younger

Basalt flows (early Mesozoic)

3

TIME

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2 1

Older

200

Z

Y X

Z X Disconformity

FIGURE 8.18 The use of fossil assemblages for determining relative ages. Rock X contains . Therefore, it must have formed during time interval 1. .Therefore, it must have formed during time interval 2. Rock Y contains Rock Z contains . Therefore, it must have formed during time interval 3. In the second area, fossils of time interval 2 are missing. Therefore, the surface between X and Z is a disconformity.

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TABLE 8.2 Era

201

Geologic Time Scale Period

Epoch

Quaternary

Holocene (Recent) Pleistocene Neogene

Cenozoic **Tertiary

Pliocene Miocene

Oligocene Paleogene Eocene Paleocene Mesozoic

Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic

Paleozoic

Permian Pennsylvanian Mississippian Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian

FIGURE 8.19 Elrathia kingii trilobites from the Middle Cambrian Wheeler Formation of Utah. The larger one is 10 mm in diameter. Photo by Robert R. Gaines

The Standard Geologic Time Scale Geologists can use fossils in rock to refer the age of the rock to the standard geologic time scale, a worldwide relative time scale. Based on fossil assemblages, the geologic time scale subdivides geologic time. On the basis of fossils found, a geologist can say, for instance, that the rocks of the lower portion of horizontal layers in the Grand Canyon formed during the Cambrian Period. This implicitly correlates these rocks with certain rocks in Wales (in fact, the period takes its name from Cambria, the Latin name for Wales) and elsewhere in the world where similar fossils occur. The geologic time scale, shown in a somewhat abbreviated form in table 8.2, has had tremendous significance as a unifying concept in the physical and biological sciences. The working out of the evolutionary chronology by successive generations of geologists and other scientists has been a remarkable human achievement. The geologic time scale, representing an extensive fossil record, consists of three eras, which are divided into periods, which are, in turn, subdivided into epochs. (Remember that this is a relative time scale.) Precambrian denotes the vast amount of time that preceded the Paleozoic Era (which begins with the Cambrian Period). The Paleozoic Era (meaning “old life”) began with the appearance of complex life (trilobites, for example), as indicated by fossils. Rocks older than Paleozoic contain few fossils. This is because creatures with shells or other hard parts, which are easily preserved as fossils, did not evolve until the beginning of the Paleozoic. The Mesozoic Era (meaning “middle life”) followed the Paleozoic. On land, dinosaurs became the dominant animals of the Mesozoic. We live in the Holocene (or Recent) Epoch of the Quaternary Period of the Cenozoic Era (meaning “new

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冎 Carboniferous*

Precambrian Time *Outside of North America, Carboniferous Period is used rather than Pennsylvanian and Mississippian. **In 2003, the International Commission on Stratigraphy recommended dropping Tertiary and Quaternary as periods and replacing them with Paleogene and Neogene (shown in red, along with their boundaries). Currently, the Geological Society of America annually updates the geologic time scale and posts it on www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/

life”). The Quaternary also includes the most recent ice ages, which were part of the Pleistocene Epoch. It is noteworthy that the fossil record indicates mass extinctions, in which a large number of species became extinct, occurred a number of times in the geologic past. The two greatest mass extinctions define the boundaries between the three eras (see boxes 8.1 and 8.2). Fossils have been used to determine ages of the horizontal rocks in Grand Canyon. All are Paleozoic. The lowermost horizontal formations (chapter opening photo) are Cambrian, above which are Devonian, Mississippian, Pennsylvanian, and Permian rock units. By referring to the geologic time scale (table 8.2), we can see that Ordovician and Silurian rocks are not represented. Thus, an unconformity (a disconformity) is present within the horizontally layered rocks of Grand Canyon.

NUMERICAL AGE Counting annual growth rings in a tree trunk will tell you how old a tree is. Similarly, layers of sediment deposited annually in glacial lakes can be counted to determine how long those lakes

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EARTH SYSTEMS 8.1

Highlights of the Evolution of Life through Time

T

he following is a very condensed preview of what you are likely to learn about if you take a historical geology course. The history of the biosphere is preserved in the fossil record. Through fossils, we can determine their place in the evolution of plants and animals as well as get clues as to how extinct creatures lived. The oldest readily identifiable fossils found are prokaryotes— microscopic, single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus. These date back to around 3.5 billion years (b.y.) ago, so life on Earth is at least that old. It is likely that even more primitive organisms date back further in time but are not preserved in the fossil record. Fossils of much more complex, single-celled organisms that contained a nucleus (eukaryotes) are found in rocks as old as 1.4 b.y. These are the earliest living creatures to have reproduced sexually. Colonies of unicellular organisms likely evolved into multicellular organisms. Multicellular algae fossils date back at least a billion years. Imprints of larger multicellular creatures appear in rocks of late Precambrian age, about 700 to 550 million years ago (m.y.). These resemble jellyfish and worms. Sedimentary rocks from the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic Eras have abundant fossils. Large numbers of fossils appeared early in the Cambrian Period. Trilobites (see figure 8.19) evolved into many species and were particularly abundant during the Cambrian. Trilobites were arthropods that crawled on muddy sea floors and are the oldest fossils with eyes. They became less significant later in the Paleozoic, and finally, all trilobites became extinct by the end of the Paleozoic. The most primitive fishes, the first vertebrates, date back to late in the Cambrian. Fishes similar to presently living species (including sharks) flourished during the Devonian (named after Devonshire, England). The Devonian is often called the “age of fishes.” Amphibians evolved from air-breathing fishes late in the Devonian. These were the first land vertebrates. However, invertebrate land animals date back to the latest Cambrian, and land plants first appeared in the Ordovician. Reptiles and early ancestors of mammals evolved from amphibians in Pennsylvanian time or perhaps earlier.

The Paleozoic ended with the greatest mass extinction ever to occur on Earth. Around 80% of marine species died out as the Permian period ended. During the Mesozoic, new creatures evolved to occupy ecological domains left vacant by extinct creatures. Dinosaurs and mammals evolved from the animal species that survived the great extinction. Dinosaurs became the dominant group of land animals. Birds likely evolved from dinosaurs in the Mesozoic. Large, now extinct, marine reptiles lived in Mesozoic seas. Ichthyosaurs, for example, were up to 20 meters long, had dolphinlike bodies, and were probably fast swimmers. Flying reptiles, pterosaurs, some of which had wingspans of almost 10 meters, soared through the air. The Cretaceous Period (and Mesozoic Era) ended with the second-largest mass extinction (around 75% of species were wiped out). The Cenozoic is often called the age of mammals. Mammals, which were small, insignificant creatures during the Mesozoic, evolved into the many groups of mammals (whales, bats, canines, cats, elephants, primates, and so forth) that occupy Earth at present. Many species of mammals evolved and became extinct throughout the Cenozoic. Hominids (modern humans and our extinct ancestors) have a fossil record dating back 6 m.y. and likely evolved from a now extinct ancestor common to hominids, chimpanzees, and other apes. We tend to think of mammals’ evolution as being the great success story (because we are mammals); mammals, however, pale in comparison to insects. Insects have been around far longer than mammals and now account for an estimated 1 million species.

existed (varves, as these deposits are called, are explained in chapter 19). But only within the few decades following the discovery of radioactivity in 1896 have scientists been able to determine numerical ages of rock units. We have subsequently been able to assign numerical values to the geologic time scale and determine how many years ago the various eras, periods, and epochs began and ended: The Cenozoic Era began some 65 million years ago, the Mesozoic Era started about 250 million years ago, and the Precambrian ended (or the Paleozoic began) about 545 million years ago. The Precambrian includes most of geologic time, because the age of Earth is commonly regarded as about 4.5 to 4.6 billion years. In 2008, a rock from Hudson Bay in northern Canada (its location is indicated on the inside front cover) was dated as being 4.28 billion years old. This rock is nearly 300 million

years older than the previously dated oldest rock (age 4.03 billion years old). In 2001, the oldest known mineral was dated at 4.4 billion years old, which is considerably older than the oldest rock dated so far. The mineral, a zircon crystal from Australia, was likely originally in a granite. Scientists who have studied this mineral think that its chemical makeup indicates that the granite formed from a magma that had a component of melted sedimentary rock. This would indicate that seas existed much earlier than geologists had previously thought possible.

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Additional Resources University of California Museum of Paleontology Find pictures of the fossils named in this box. • www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/

The Paleontology Portal Another site to find out about fossils. You can search by type of creature, by time, or by location. • www.paleoportal.org/

Isotopic Dating Radioactivity provides a “clock” that begins running when radioactive elements are sealed into newly crystallized minerals. The rates at which radioactive elements decay have been

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EARTH SYSTEMS 8.2

Demise of the Dinosaurs—Was It Extraterrestrial?

T

he story of the rise and fall of dinosaurs involves the biosphere (the dinosaurs and their ecosystem), the solar system (extraterrestrial objects), the atmosphere (which changed abruptly), and the hydrosphere (part of an ocean was vaporized). Dinosaurs dominated the continents during the Mesozoic Era. Now they prey on the imaginations of children of all ages and are featured in media ranging from movies to cartoons. It’s hard to accept that beings as powerful and varied as dinosaurs existed and were wiped out. But the fossil record is clear—when the Mesozoic came to a close, dinosaurs became extinct. Not a single of the numerous dinosaur species survived into the Cenozoic Era. Not only did the dinosaurs go, but about half of all plant and animal species, marine as well as terrestrial, were extinguished. This was one of Earth’s “great dyings,” or mass extinctions. A couple decades ago, geologist Walter Alvarez, his father, physicist Luis Alvarez, and two other scientists proposed a hypothesis that the dinosaur extinction was caused by the impact of an asteroid. This was based on the chemical analysis of a thin layer of clay marking the boundary between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras (usually referred to as the K-T boundary—it separates the Cretaceous [K] and Tertiary [T] Periods). The K-T boundary clay was found to have about 30 times the amount of the rare element iridium as is normal for crustal rocks. Iridium is relatively abundant in meteorites and other extraterrestrial objects such as comets, and the scientists suggested that the iridium was brought in by an extraterrestrial body. A doomsday scenario is visualized in which an asteroid 10 kilometers in diameter struck Earth. The asteroid would have blazed through the atmosphere at astonishing speed and, likely, impacted at sea. Part of the ocean would have been vaporized and a crater created on the ocean floor. There would have been an earthquake much larger than any ever felt by humans. Several-hundred-meter-high waves would crisscross the oceans, devastating life anywhere near shorelines. The lower atmosphere would have become intolerably hot, at least for a short period of time. The atmosphere worldwide would have been altered and the climate cooled because of the increased blockage of sunlight by dust particles suspended in the upper atmosphere. For a while, the hypothesis was hotly debated. Other scientists hypothesized that the extinctions were caused by exceptionally large volcanic activity. Further evidence supporting the asteroid hypothesis accumulated. K-T layers throughout the world were

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found to have grains of quartz that had been subjected to shock metamorphism (see box 15.1). Microscopic spheres of glass that formed when rock melted from the impact and droplets were thrown high into the air were also found in the K-T layers. Sediment that appeared to have been deposited by giant sea waves was found in various locations. The asteroid hypothesis advocates predicted that a large meteorite crater should be found someplace on Earth that could be dated as having formed around 65 million years ago, when the Mesozoic ended. In 1990, the first evidence for the “smoking gun” crater was found. The now-confirmed crater is over 200 kilometers in diameter and centered along the coast of Mexico’s Yucatan peninsula at a place called Chicxulub. The crater at Chicxulub, now buried beneath younger sedimentary rock, is the right size to have been formed by a 10-kilometer asteroid. The existence of the crater was confirmed by geologists going over Mexican oil company records compiled during drilling for oil at Yucatan and finding breccias of the right age buried in the Chicxulub area. Breccias, due to meteorite impact, are common at known meteorite craters. The evidence for an asteroid impact is overwhelming. But not all researchers believe that the meteorite impact was the cause of the mass extinction. Newly refined dating techniques seem to indicate that the impact occurred some 300,000 years before the K-T boundary. The new dates show that the K-T boundary does coincide with the peak of huge basalt eruptions in India. Further use of refined isotopic dating techniques may help to determine the extent to which asteroid impact or vulcanism contributed to the mass extinction. Extinction was unfortunate, from the perspective of dinosaurs, but was very fortunate from a human’s perspective. The only mammals in the Cretaceous were inconsequential, mostly rat-sized creatures that could stay out of the way of dinosaurs. They survived the K-T extinction and, with dinosaurs no longer dominating the land, evolved into the many mammal species that populate Earth today, including humans.

Additional Resource BBC—Dinosaurs Visit Tyrannosaurus rex and other famous dinosaurs and read more about the K-T extinction. • www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/dinosaurs/

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measured and duplicated in many different laboratories. Therefore, if we can determine the ratio of a particular radioactive element and its decay products in a mineral, we can calculate how long ago that mineral crystallized. Determining the age of a rock through its radioactive elements is known as isotopic dating (previously, and somewhat inaccurately, called radiometric dating). Geologists who specialize in this important field are known as geochronologists.

Alpha particle

Daughter nucleus has atomic number 2 less and mass number 4 less than parent nucleus Alpha decay–2 neutrons and 2 protons lost

Isotopes and Radioactive Decay As discussed in chapter 9, every atom of a given element possesses the same number of protons in its nucleus. (Atomic numbers, which indicate the number of protons in the atom of an element, can be found in the periodic table of elements in appendix D.) The number of neutrons, however, need not be the same in all atoms of the same element. The isotopes of a given element have different numbers of neutrons but the same number of protons. Uranium, for example, commonly occurs as two isotopes, uranium-238 (238U) and uranium-235 (235U). The former has a total of 238 protons and neutrons in its nucleus, whereas the latter has a total of 235. (238U is, by far, the most abundant of naturally occurring uranium isotopes. Only 0.72% of uranium is 235U; however, this is the isotope used for nuclear weapons and power generators.) For both isotopes, 92 (the atomic number of uranium) nuclear particles must be protons and the rest neutrons. Radioactive decay is the spontaneous nuclear change of isotopes with unstable nuclei. Energy is produced with radioactive decay. Emissions from radioactive elements can be detected by a Geiger counter or similar device and, in high concentrations, can damage or kill humans (see box 8.3). Nuclei of radioactive isotopes change primarily in three ways (figure 8.20). An alpha (␣) emission is the ejection of 2 protons and 2 neutrons from a nucleus. When an alpha emission takes place, the atomic number of the atom is reduced by 2, because 2 protons are lost, and its atomic mass number is reduced by 4, because a total of 2 protons and 2 neutrons are lost. After an alpha emission, 238U becomes 234Th (thorium), which has an atomic number of 90. The original isotope (238U) is referred to as the parent isotope. The new isotope (234Th) is the daughter product. Beta (␤) emissions involve the release of an electron from a nucleus. To understand this, we need to explain that electrons, which have virtually no mass and are usually in orbit around the nucleus, are also in the nucleus as part of a neutron. A neutron is a proton with an electron inside of it; thus, it is electrically neutral. If an electron is emitted from a neutron during radioactive decay, the neutron becomes a proton and the atom’s atomic number is increased by one. For example, when 234Th (atomic number 90) undergoes a beta emission, it becomes 234Pa, an element with an atomic number of 91. Note that the atomic mass number has not changed. This is because the weight of an electron is negligible. The third mode of change is electron capture, whereby a proton in the nucleus captures an orbiting electron. The proton becomes a neutron. The atom becomes a different element hav-

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Beta particle (electron) Daughter nucleus has atomic number 1 higher than parent nucleus. No change in mass number Beta decay–Neutron loses an electron and becomes a proton

Electron Daughter nucleus has atomic number 1 lower than parent nucleus. No change in mass number Electron capture–A proton captures an electron and becomes a neutron Proton

Neutron

Electron

FIGURE 8.20 Three modes of radioactive decay.

ing an atomic number one less than its parent isotope. An example of this is the potassium-argon system in table 8.3, in which 40K becomes 40Ar. The parent isotope, potassium, has an atomic number of 19, and the atomic number of argon, the daughter product, is 18, because a proton was changed into a neutron. Figure 8.21 shows how 238U decays to 206Pb (lead-206) in a series of alpha and beta emissions. The important point is not the intermediate steps but the starting and ending isotopes. In the process, 238U loses 10 protons, so that the daughter product has an atomic number of 82 (which is lead), and loses a total of 32 protons and neutrons, so the new atomic mass number is 206. 206Pb can only be produced by the decay of 238U. To understand how isotopic dating works, it is important to recognize that if a large number of atoms of a given radioactive isotope are present in a rock or mineral, the proportion (or percentage) of those atoms that will radioactively decay over a given time span is constant. For example, if you have 100,000 atoms of isotope X and over a period of a million years, a quarter of those atoms (25,000) radioactively decay, the proportion would be 1 in 4. You would have the same proportion of 1 in 4 if you started out with 300,000 atoms: after a million years,

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206

U

Pb

92 protons 146 neutrons 238

205

10 protons lost 22 neutrons lost

82 protons 124 neutrons

234

U

Th

234

Pa

234

230

U

222

Th

222

Ra

218

Rn

214

Po

Pb

Alpha decay Beta decay

214

Bi

214

210

Po

Pb

210

Bi

210

206

Po

92

91

90

89

88

87

86

85

Pb

84

83

82

Atomic number

Uranium 238 decays to lead 206. The different intermediate steps in the process are shown below the models of the nuclei of 238U and 206Pb. Refer to appendix C or the periodic table of elements in appendix D for names of the elements shown.

with 1 milligram of 40K, 1.3 billion years later one-half milligram of 40K would remain. After another 1.3 billion years, there would be one-fourth of a milligram, and after another half-life, only one-eighth of a milligram. Note that two half-lives do not equal a whole life. Normally, we do not use the term for a burning candle (figure 8.22B). To determine the age of a rock by using 40K, the amount of 40 K in that rock must first be determined by chemical analysis. The amount of 40Ar (the daughter product) must also be determined. Adding the two values gives us how much 40K was

75,000 of the atoms would have decayed. The proportional amount of atoms that decay in time is unaffected by chemical reactions or by the high pressures and high temperatures of Earth’s interior. The rate of proportional decay for isotopes is expressed as half-life, the time it takes for one-half of a given number of radioactive atoms to decay. The half-lives of some isotopes created in nuclear reactors are in fractions of a second. Naturally occurring isotopes used to date rocks have very long half-lives (table 8.3). 40K has a half-life of 1.3 billion years. If you began

TABLE 8.3

FIGURE 8.21

Radioactive Istopes Commonly Used for Determining Ages of Earth’s Materials

Parent Isotope

Half-Life

Daughter Product

Effective Dating Range (years)

K-40 40K U-238 238U U-235 235U Th-232 232Th Rb-87 87Rb C-14 14C

1.3 billion years 4.5 billion years 713 million years 14.1 billion years 49 billion years 5,730 years

40

100,000–4.6 billion 10 million–4.6 billion 10 million–4.6 billion 10 million–4.6 billion 10 million–4.6 billion 100–40,000

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Ar Pb 207 Pb 208 Pb 87 Sr 14 N 206

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E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 8 . 3

Radon, a Radioactive Health Hazard

R

adon is an odorless, colorless gas. Every time you breathe outdoors, you inhale a harmless, minute amount of radon. If the concentration of radon that you breathe in a building is too high, however, you could, over time, develop lung cancer. It is one of the intermediate daughter products in the radioactive disintegration of 238 U to 206Pb. It has a half-life of only 3.8 days. Concentrations of radon are highest in areas where the bedrock is granite, gneiss, limestone, black shale, or phosphate-rich rock— rocks in which uranium is relatively abundant. Concentrations are also high where glacial deposits are made of fragments of these rocks. Even in these areas, radon levels are harmless in open, freely circulating air. Radon may dissolve in ground water or build up to high concentrations in confined air spaces. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regards 5 million American homes to have unacceptable radon levels in the air. Scientists outside of EPA have concluded that the standards the EPA is using are too stringent. They think that a more reasonably defined danger level means that only 50,000 homes have radon concentrations that pose a danger to their occupants. Radon was first recognized in the 1950s as a health hazard in uranium mines, where the gas would collect in poorly ventilated air spaces. Radon lodges in the respiratory system of an individual, and as it deteriorates into daughter products, the subatomic particles given off damage lung tissue. Three-quarters of the uranium miners studied were smokers. Thus, it is difficult to determine the extent to which smoking or radon induced lung cancer. (All studies show, however, that smoking and exposure to high radon levels are more likely to cause lung cancer than either alone.)

Interpolating the high rates of cancer incidence from the uranium miners to the population exposed to the very much lower radium levels in homes, as the EPA has done, is scientifically questionable. What should you do if you are living in a high radon area? First, have your house checked to see what the radon level is. (You may purchase a simple and inexpensive test kit at many home improvement centers.) Then, read up on what acceptable standards should be. In most buildings with a high radon level, the gas seeps in from the underlying soil through the building’s foundation. If a building’s windows are kept open and fresh air circulates freely, radon concentrations cannot build up. But houses are often kept sealed for air conditioning during the summer and heating during the winter. Air circulation patterns are such that a slight vacuum sucks the gases from the underlying soil into the house. Thus, radon concentrations might build up to dangerous levels. The problem may be solved in several ways (aside from leaving windows open winter and summer). Basements can be made air tight so that gases cannot be sucked into the house from the soil. Air circulation patterns can be altered so that gases are not sucked in from underlying soil or are mixed with sufficient fresh, outside air. If you are purchasing a new house, it would be a good idea to have it tested for radon before buying, particularly if the house is in an area of high-uranium bedrock or soil.

present when the rock formed. By knowing how much 40K was originally present in the rock and how much is still there, we can calculate the age of the rock on the basis of its half-life mathematically (see box 8.4). The graph in figure 8.22A applies the mathematical relationship between a radioactively decaying isotope and time and can be used to easily determine an isotopic age.

ber 6) in air is in CO2. It is mostly the stable isotope 12C. However, 14C is created in the atmosphere as follows: • Neutrons as cosmic radiation bombards nitrogen (N), atomic number 7. A neutron is captured by an 14N atom’s nucleus. • This causes a proton to be immediately expelled from the atom and the atom becomes 14C. • The nucleus of the newly created carbon atom is unstable and will, sooner or later, through a beta emission (loss of an electron from a neutron), revert to 14N. • The rate of production of 14C approximately balances the rate at which 14C reverts to 14N so that the level of 14C remains essentially constant in the atmosphere. Living matter incorporates 12C and 14C into its tissues; the ratios of 12C and 14C in the new tissues are the same as in the atmosphere. On dying, the plant or animal ceases to build new tissue. The 14C disintegrates radioactively at the fixed rate of its half-life (5,730 years). The ratio of 12C to radioactive 14C in organic remains is determined in a laboratory. Using the ratio, the time elapsed since the death of the organism is calculated. We now know there has been some variation in the rate of production of 14C in the atmosphere in the past. Radiocarbon dates are now calibrated to account for those fluctuations.

Radiocarbon Dating Because of its short half-life of 5,730 years, radiocarbon dating is useful only in dating things and events accurately back to about 40,000 years—about seven half-lives. The technique is most useful in archaeological dating and for very young geologic events (Holocene, or Recent, volcanic and glacial features for instance). It is also used to date historical artifacts. For instance, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest of the surviving biblical manuscripts, were radiocarbon dated and their ages ranged from the third century B.C. to 68 A.D. These ages are consistent with estimates previously made by archaeologists and other scholars. Radiocarbon dating is fundamentally different from the parent-daughter systems described previously in that 14C is being created continuously in the atmosphere. Carbon (atomic num-

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Additional Resource Radon Potential of the United States Check the extent of radon hazard for any part of the United States. •

http://energy.cr.usgs.gov/radon/rnus.html

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However, dates obtained are minimum ages, because snow that covered the boulders for part of the year reduced their exposure to cosmogenic radiation.

Time

% of original radioactive isotopes

Half-life

Half-life

Half-life

Half-life

Uses of Isotopic Dating

100

75 Daughter isotope 50 Parent isotope 25 12.5 6.25 0

1

2 Time

3

4 Half-lives

A

% of candle left

207

100

75

50

25

B

Time

FIGURE 8.22 (A) The curve used to determine the age of a rock by comparing the percentage of radioactive isotope remaining in time to the original amount. Dark-blue bars show the amount left after each half-life. Dashed red curve shows the amount disintegrated into daughter product and lost nuclear particles. The numbers of dots in the squares above the graph are proportional to the numbers of atoms. (B) For comparison, a candle burns at a linear rate. Note that for the candle that two “half lives” equal a whole life.

Cosmogenic Isotope Dating During the past couple decades, another dating technique has been added to geologists’ numerical age determination arsenal. Cosmogenic isotope dating, or surface exposure dating, uses the effects of constant bombardment by neutron radiation coming from deep space (cosmogenic) of material at Earth’s surface. The high-energy particles hit atoms in minerals and alter their nuclei. For instance, when the atoms in quartz are hit, oxygen is converted to beryllium-10 (10Be) and silicon is changed to aluminum-26 ( 26Al). The concentrations of these isotopes increase at a constant rate once a rock surface is exposed to the atmosphere because the influx of cosmogenic radiation is uniform over time. The length of time a rock surface has been exposed can be calculated by knowing the rate of increase of a cosmogenic isotope and determining the amount of that isotope in a mineral at a rock’s surface. One application of cosmogenic dating has been to determine how long ago boulders were deposited by advancing glaciers during the geologically recent ice ages (see chapter 19).

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When we are dating a rock, we are usually attempting to determine how long ago that rock formed. But exactly what is being dated depends on the type of rock and the isotopes analyzed. For a metamorphic rock, we are likely to be dating a time during the millions of years of the cooling of that rock rather than the peak of high temperature during metamorphism. Some techniques determine isotopic ratios for a whole rock, while others use single minerals within a rock. Usually, an isotopic date determines how long ago the rock or mineral became a closed system; that is, how long ago it was sealed off so that neither parent nor daughter isotopes could enter or leave the mineral or rock. Each isotopic pair has a different closure temperature—the temperature below which the system is closed and the “clock” starts. For instance, the 40K 40Ar isotopic pair has closure temperatures ranging from 150°C to 550°C, depending on the mineral. (Ar is a gas and gets trapped in different crystal structures at different temperatures.) Generally, the best dates are obtained from igneous rocks. For a lava flow, which cools and solidifies rapidly, the age determined is the precise time at which the rock formed. On the other hand, plutonic rocks, which may take over a million years to solidify, will not necessarily yield the time of intrusion but the time at which a mineral cooled below the closure temperature. Dating metamorphic rocks usually means determining when closure temperatures for particular minerals are reached during cooling. Sedimentary rocks are difficult to date reliably. For an isotopic age determination to be accurate, several conditions must be met. To ensure that the isotopic system has remained closed, the rock collected must show no signs of weathering or hydrothermal alteration. Second, one should be able to infer there were no daughter isotopes in the system at the time of closure or make corrections for probable amounts of daughter isotopes present before the “clock” was set. Third, there must be sufficient parent and daughter atoms to be measurable by the instrument (a mass spectrometer) being used. And, of course, technicians and geochronologists must be highly skilled at working sophisticated equipment and collecting and processing rock specimens. (For more on mass spectrometry, go to http://mass-spec.chem.cmu.edu/VMSL/.) Whenever possible, geochronologists will use more than one isotope pair for a rock. The two U-Pb systems (table 8.3) can usually be used together and provide an internal cross-check on the age determination. Because of their high closure temperatures, U-Pb systems are usually more realistic of crystallization ages of rocks than K-Ar or Rb-Sr results. Techniques for dating have been refined in recent years, reducing the uncertainties of dates. In 2008, scientists reported on calibration of the K-Ar system that gives dates closer to those obtained by U-Pb for a given rock or mineral. Because of this, the K-T boundary has been tentatively moved from 65.5 million years ago to 66.0 million years ago. The greatest mass extinction,

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I N G R E AT E R D E P T H 8 . 4

Calculating the Age of a Rock

T

he relationship between time and radioactive decay of an isotope is expressed by the following equation (which is used to plot curves such as shown in figure 8.22). N ⫽ N0e⫺␭t N is the number of atoms of the isotope at time t, the time elapsed. N0 is the number of atoms of that isotope present when the “clock” was set. The mathematical constant e has a value of 2.718. ␭ is a decay constant—a proportionality constant that relates the rate of decay of an isotope to the number of atoms of that isotope remaining. The relationship between ␭ and the half-life (thl) is ␭⫽

ln 2 0.693 ⫽ thl thl

N/N 0 is the ratio of parent atoms at present to the original number of parent atoms. As an example, we will calculate the age of a mineral using 235 U decaying to 207Pb. Table 8.3 indicates that the half-life is 713 million years. A laboratory determines that, at present, there are 440,000 atoms of 235U and that the amount of 207Pb indicates that when the mineral crystallized, there were 1,200,000 atoms of 235 U. (We assume that there was no 207Pb in the mineral at the time the mineral crystallized.) Plugging these values into the formula, we get t⫽

713,000,000 440,000 ln .693 1,200,000

Solving this gives us 1,032,038,250 years.

Replacing ␭ in the first equation and converting that equation to natural logarithmic (to the base e) form, we get t⫽

thl N ln .693 N0

at the close of the Paleozoic, has been moved from 251.0 million years ago to 252.5 million years ago. This new age places it at the time of huge flood basalt eruptions in Siberia. (Note: We have not changed the ages in figure 8.24 because scientists would like to see more independent confirmations of the dates.)

How Reliable Is Isotopic Dating? Half-lives of radioactive isotopes, whether short-lived, such as used in medicine, or long-lived, such as used in isotopic dating, have been found not to vary beyond statistical expectations. The half-life of each of the isotopes we use for dating rocks has not changed with physical conditions or chemical activity, nor could the rates have been different in the distant past. It would violate laws of physics for decay rates (half-lives) to have been different in the past. Moreover, when several isotopic dating systems are painstakingly done on a single ancient igneous rock, the same age is obtained within calculable margins of error. This confirms that the decay constants for each system are indeed constant. Comparing isotopic ages with relative age relationships confirms the reliability of isotopic dating. For instance, a dike that crosscuts rocks containing Cenozoic fossils gives us a relatively young isotopic age (less than 65 million years old), whereas a pluton truncated by overlying sedimentary rocks with earliest Paleozoic fossils yields a relatively old age (greater than 544 million years). Many thousands of similar determinations have confirmed the reliability of radiometric dating.

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COMBINING RELATIVE AND NUMERICAL AGES Radiometric dating can provide numerical time brackets for events whose relative ages are known. Figure 8.23 adds isotopic dates for each of the two igneous bodies in the fictitious Minor Canyon area of figure 8.1. The date obtained for the granite is 540 million years B.P. (before present), while the dike formed 78 million years ago. We can now state that the Tarburg Formation and older tilted layers formed before 540 million years ago (though we cannot say how much older they are). We still do not know whether the Leet Junction Formation is older or younger than the granite because of the lack of cross-cutting relationships. The Larsonton Formation’s age is bracketed by the age of the granite and the age of the dike. That is, it is between 540 and 78 million years old. The Foster City and overlying formations are younger than 78 million years old; how much younger we cannot say. Isotopic dates from volcanic ash layers or lava flows interlayered between fossiliferous sedimentary rocks have been used to assign numerical ages to the geologic time scale (figure 8.24). Isotopic dating has also allowed us to extend the time scale back into the Precambrian. There is, of course, a margin of uncertainty in each of the given dates. The beginning of the Paleozoic, for instance, was regarded until recently to be 570 million years ago but with an uncertainty of ± 30 million years. Recent work has fixed the age as 544 ± 1 million years.

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nd kla Bir Fm

nton

Fm

B ir k la

L

u

tg

ra

d

F

n Lee

t Ju

nct Fm ion

nd Fm Dik

Larso

tio Ju n c Leet m F

s to n e

e

L im e r G u lc h S k in n e m F v il le H a m li n Fm r C it y Fo s te

209

G ra n

ite u Ta r b

rg F

m

Contact metamorphosed zone

m Dike 78 million years old

Granite 540 million years old

FIGURE 8.23 The Minor Canyon area as shown in figure 8.1 but with isotopic dates for igneous rocks indicated.

There are inherent limitations on the dating techniques as well as problems in finding the ideal rock for dating. For instance, if you wanted to obtain the date for the end of the Paleozoic Era and the beginning of the Mesozoic Era, the ideal rock would be found where there is no break in deposition of sediments between the two eras, as indicated by fossils in the rocks. But the difficulties in dating sedimentary rock mean you would be unlikely to date such rocks. Therefore, you would need to date volcanic rocks interlayered with sedimentary rocks found as close as possible to the transitional sedimentary strata. Alternatively, isotopically dated intrusions, such as dikes, whose cross-cutting relationships indicate that the age of intrusion is close to that of the transitional sedimentary layers, could be used to approximate the numerical age of the transition. Isotopic dating has shown that the Precambrian took up most of geologic time (87%). Obviously, the Precambrian needed to be subdivided. The three major subdivisions of the Precambrian are the Hadean (Hades is, in Greek mythology, the underground place where the dead live; the name alludes to the hell-like nature of Earth’s early surface), the Archean, and the Proterozoic (Greek for “beginning life”). Each is regarded as an eon, the largest unit of geological time. A fourth, and youngest, eon is the Phanerozoic (Greek for “visible life”). The Phanerozoic Eon is all of geologic time with an abundant fossil record; in other words, it is made up of the three eras that followed the Precambrian.

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AGE OF THE EARTH In 1625, Archbishop James Ussher determined that Earth was created in the year 4004 B.C. His age determination was made by counting back generations in the Bible. This would make Earth 6,000 years old at present. That very young age of Earth was largely taken for granted by Western countries. By contrast, Hindus at the time regarded Earth as very old. According to an ancient Hindu calendar, the year A.D. 2000 would be year 1,972,949,101. With the popularization of uniformitarianism in the early 1800s, Earth scientists began to realize that Earth must be very old—at least in the hundreds of millions of years. They were dealt a setback by the famous English physicist, Lord Kelvin. Kelvin, in 1866, calculated from the rate at which Earth loses heat that Earth must have been entirely molten between 20 and 100 million years ago. He later refined his estimate to between 20 and 40 million years. He was rather arrogant in scoffing at Earth scientists who believed that uniformitarianism indicated a much older age for Earth. The discovery of radioactivity in 1896 invalidated Kelvin’s claim because it provided a heat source that he had not known about. When radioactive elements decay, heat is given off and that heat is added to the heat already in Earth. The amount of radioactive heat given off at present approximates the heat Earth is losing. So, for all practical purposes, Earth is not getting cooler. The discovery of radioactivity also provided the means to determine how old Earth is. In 1905, the first crude isotopic

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Eon

CHAPTER 8

Period and symbol

Era

Cenozoic

Quaternary

(Q)

Tertiary

(T)

Cretaceous

Phanerozoic

Mesozoic

Time and Geology

Epoch

Neogene

Holocene (Recent) Pleistocene

or

Paleogene

Proterozoic

*

Pliocene 5.3 Miocene

145 Jurassic

(J)

Triassic

R (T)

Permian

(P)

Mississippian

(M)

Devonian

(D)

Silurian

(S)

Ordovician

(O)

Cambrian

(ε)

24 200

Oligocene 251

300

PR

Eocene

418

Paleocene

441

65

*

490

A M (pε B R ) I

Hadean

34

55

Cenozoic

544

EC

Origin of Earth

*

Carboniferous (outside of North America)

311 355

Archean

65

.01 1.65

(K)

Pennsylvanian (lP)

Paleozoic

Approximate age in millions of years before present

Approximate age in millions of years before present

Mesozoic Paleozoic 544 million years ago

2,500 (Not drawn to scale)

A

N

Precambrian

210

(Drawn to scale)

4,000

4,550

*We have not changed the ages for the K-T and the Permian-Triassic boundaries because scientists would like to see

4,550 million years ago

more independent confirmation of the ages of 66 and 252.5 million years.

FIGURE 8.24 The geologic time scale. The small diagram to the right shows the Precambrian and the three eras at the same scale. Note that the Precambrian accounts for almost 90% of geologic time. After A. V. Okulitch, 1999, Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 3040 and International Commission on Stratigraphy (2004). www.stratigraphy.org/gssp.htm Currently, the Geological Society of America annually updates the geologic time scale and posts it on www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/

dates were done and indicated an age of 2 billion years. But since then, we have dated rocks on Earth that are twice that age. Earth is now regarded as between 4.5 and 4.6 billion years old—much older than the oldest rock found. Because erosion and tectonic activity have recycled the original material at Earth’s surface, we cannot determine Earth’s age from its rocks. The age determination comes primarily from dates obtained from meteorites and lunar rocks. Most meteorites are regarded as fragments of material that did not coalesce into a planet. The oldest dates obtained from meteorites and lunar rocks are in the

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4.5 to 4.6 billion-year range. It is highly likely that the planets and other bodies of the solar system, including Earth, formed at approximately the same time.

Comprehending Geologic Time The vastness of geologic time (sometimes called deep time) is difficult for us to comprehend. One way of visualizing deep time is to imagine driving from Los Angeles to New York, a distance of approximately 4,500 kilometers, where each kilometer

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Diplodocus (Mesozoic)

Uintathere (Early Cenozoic)

END OSA ZON UR E

DIN

WAT CH FOR MAM MAL S WATCH FOR DINOSAU RS Abun dant Mari ne Foss ils Ahea d

Dimetrodon (Late Paleozoic)

Trilobite (Early Paleozoic)

New York Trenton

Olde st Rock

Pittsburgh

RIAN

AMB

PREC 4,500 M.Y.A. Los Angeles

FIGURE 8.25 Going from Los Angeles to New York, a distance of approximately 4,500 kilometers, each kilometer represents 1 million years. You would be driving in the Precambrian until you got to Pennsylvania, near Pittsburgh. Your drive through the Paleozoic would be entirely in Pennsylvania. Your 179-kilometer drive through the Mesozoic (dinosaur country) would take you to New Jersey, only 65 million years from downtown New York. In downtown New York, the end of the ice ages is only 10 meters (10,000 years), the width of a narrow street and sidewalk, from your destination. The 2,000 A.D. years are represented by a 2-meter-wide sidewalk and a human life span by less than 100 millimeters, about half the width of a curb.

represents 1 million years—this is a very, very slow trip. The highlights of the trip corresponding to Earth’s history are shown in figure 8.25. Note that if you live to be 100, your life is represented by less than the width of a curb at the edge of a sidewalk. Another way to get a sense of geologic time is to compare it to a motion picture. A movie is projected at a rate of thirtytwo frames per second; that is, each image is flashed on the screen for only 1/32 of a second, giving the illusion of continuous motion. But suppose that each frame represented 100 years.

If you lived 100 years, one frame would represent your whole lifetime. If we were able to show the movie on a standard projector, each 100 years would flash by in 1/32 of a second. It would take only 1/16 of a second to go back to the signing of the Declaration of Independence. The 2,000-year-old Christian era would be on screen for 3/4 of a second. A section showing all time back to the last major ice age would only be less than seven seconds long. However, you would have to sit through almost six hours 211

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of film to view a scene at the close of the Mesozoic Era (perhaps you would see the last dinosaur die). And to give a complete record from the beginning of the Paleozoic Era, this epic film would have to run continuously for two days. You would have to spend over two weeks (sixteen days) in the theater, without even a popcorn break between reels, to see a movie entitled The Complete Story of Earth, from Its Birth to Modern Civilization.

Summary The principle of uniformitarianism (or actualism,) a fundamental concept of geology, states that the present is the key to the past. Relative time, or the sequence in which geologic events occur in an area, can be determined by applying the principles of original horizontality, superposition, lateral continuity, and cross-cutting relationships. Unconformities are buried erosion surfaces that help geologists determine the relative sequence of events in the geologic past. Beds above and below a disconformity are parallel, generally indicating less intense activity in Earth’s crust. An angular unconformity implies that folding or tilting of rocks took place before or around the time of erosion. A nonconformity implies deep erosion because metamorphic or plutonic rocks have been exposed and subsequently buried by younger rock. Rocks can be correlated by determining the physical continuity of rocks between the two areas (generally, this works only

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Thinking of our lives as taking less than a frame of such a movie can be very humbling. From the perspective of being stuck in that one last frame, geologists would like to know what the whole movie is like or, at least, get a synopsis of the most dramatic parts of the film.

for a short distance). A less useful means of correlation is similarity of rock types (which must be used cautiously). The principle of faunal succession states that fossil species succeed one another in a definite and recognizable order. Fossils are used for worldwide correlation of rocks. Sedimentary rocks are assigned to the various subdivisions of the geologic time scale on the basis of fossils they contain, which are arranged according to the principle of faunal succession. Numerical age—how many years ago a geologic event took place—is generally obtained by using isotopic dating techniques. Isotopic dating is accomplished by determining the ratio of the amount of a radioactive isotope presently in a rock or mineral being dated to the amount originally present. The time it takes for a given amount of an isotope to decay to half that amount is the half-life for that isotope. Rocks that are geologically old are usually dated by isotopes having half-lives of over a billion years. Radiocarbon dating of organic matter is used for dating events younger than 40 thousand years. Cosmogenic isotopic dating is used to determine how long rock has been exposed at Earth’s surface. Numerical ages have been determined for the subdivisions of the geologic time scale. The scientifically determined age of Earth is 4.5 to 4.6 billion years.

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Terms to Remember actualism 190 angular unconformity 197 Archean Eon 209 Cenozoic Era 201 contacts 191 correlation 198 cross-cutting relationships 192 disconformity 196 eon 209 epochs 201 eras 201 faunal succession 200 formations 191 Hadean Eon 209 half-life 205 Holocene (or Recent) Epoch 201 inclusion 196 index fossil 200 isotopes 204 isotopic dating 204

lateral continuity 192 Mesozoic Era 201 nonconformity 197 numerical age 190 original horizontality 192 Paleozoic Era 201 periods 201 Phanerozoic Eon 209 physical continuity 198 Pleistocene Epoch 201 Precambrian 201 Proterozoic Eon 209 Quaternary Period 201 radioactive decay 204 relative time 190 standard geologic time scale 201 superposition 192 unconformity 196 uniformitarianism 190

Testing Your Knowledge Use the following questions to prepare for exams based on this chapter. 1. Why is it desirable to find an index fossil in a rock layer? In the absence of index fossils, why is it desirable to find several fossils in a rock unit to determine relative age? 2. Radioactive isotope X decays to daughter isotope Y with a half-life of 120,000 years. At present you have 1/4 gram of X in a rock. From the amount of daughter isotope Y presently in the rock, you determine that the rock contained 8 grams of isotope X when it formed. How many half-lives have gone by? How old is the rock?

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213

3. By applying the various principles, draw a cross section of an area in which the following sequence of events occurred. The relative time relationship for all events should be clear from your single cross section that shows what the geology looks like at present. a. Metamorphism took place during the Archean. During later Precambrian time, uplift and erosion reduced the area to a plane. b. Three layers of marine sedimentary rock were deposited on the plain during Ordovician through Devonian time. c. Although sedimentation may have taken place during the Mississippian through Permian, there are presently no sedimentary rocks of that age in the area. d. A vertical dike intruded all rocks that existed here during the Permian. e. A layer of sandstone was deposited during the Triassic. f. All of the rocks were tilted 45° during the early Cretaceous. This was followed by erosion to a planar surface. g. The area dropped below sea level, and two layers of Tertiary sedimentary rock were deposited on the erosion surface. h. Uplift and erosion during the Quaternary resulted in a slightly hilly surface. i. Following erosion, a vertical dike fed a small volcano. 4. Name as many types of contacts (e.g., intrusive contact) as you can. 5. Using figure 8.23, suppose the base of the Hamlinville Formation has a layer of volcanic ash that is dated as being 49 million years old. How old is the Foster City Formation? 6. “Geological processes operating at present are the same processes that have operated in the past” is the principle of a. correlation

b. catastrophism

c. uniformitarianism

d. none of the preceding

7. “Within a sequence of undisturbed sedimentary rocks, the layers get younger going from bottom to top” is the principle of a. original horizontality b. superposition c. crosscutting

d. none of the preceding

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8. If rock A cuts across rock B, then rock A is ____ rock B. a. younger than

b. the same age as

c. older than 9. Which is a method of correlation? a. physical continuity

b. similarity of rock types

c. fossils

d. all of the preceding

10. Eras are subdivided into a. periods

b. eons

c. ages

d. epochs

11. Periods are subdivided into a. eras

b. epochs

c. ages

d. time zones

12. Which division of geologic time was the longest? a. Precambrian

b. Paleozoic

c. Mesozoic

d. Cenozoic

16. Which is not a type of unconformity? a. disconformity

b. angular unconformity

c. nonconformity

d. triconformity

17. A geologist could use the principle of inclusion to determine the relative age of a. fossils

b. metamorphism

c. shale layers

d. xenoliths

18. The oldest abundant fossils of complex multicellular life with shells and other hard parts date from the a. Precambrian

b. Paleozoic

c. Mesozoic

d. Cenozoic

19. A contact between parallel sedimentary rock that records missing geologic time is a. a disconformity

b. an angular unconformity

c. a nonconformity

d. a sedimentary contact

13. Which is a useful radioactive decay scheme? a.

238

U 206Pb

c. 40K 40Ar

b. 235U 207Pb d. 87Rb 87Sr

e. all of the preceding 14. C-14 dating can be used on all of the following except a. wood

b. shell

c. the Dead Sea Scrolls

d. granite

e. bone 15. Concentrations of radon are highest in areas where the bedrock is a. granite

b. gneiss

c. limestone

d. black shale

e. phosphate-rich rock

f. all of the preceding

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Expanding Your Knowledge 1. How much of the 238U originally part of Earth is still present? 2. As indicated by fossil records, why have some ancient organisms survived through very long periods of time whereas others have been very short-lived? 3. To what extent would a composite volcano (see chapter 10) be subject to the three principles described in this chapter? 4. Suppose a sequence of sedimentary rock layers was tilted into a vertical position by tectonic forces. How might you determine (a) which end was originally up and (b) the relative ages of the layers?

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www.mhhe.com/carlson9e 5. Note that in table 8.2, the epochs are given only for the Cenozoic Era (as is commonly done in geology textbooks). Why are the epochs for the Mesozoic and Paleozoic considered less important and not given? 6. Why would you not be able to use the principle of superposition to determine the age of a sill (defined in chapter 11)? 7. Using information from box 8.4, calculate the age of a feldspar. At present, there are 1.2 million atoms of 40K. The amount of 40Ar in the mineral indicates that originally, there were 1.9 million 40K atoms in the rock. Use a half-life of 1.3 billion years. (Hint: The answer is 862 million years.)

Exploring Web Resources www.mhhe.com/carlson9e McGraw-Hill’s website for Physical Geology: Earth Revealed 9th edition features a wide variety of study aids, such as animations, quizzes, answers to the end-of-chapter multiple choice questions, additional readings and Google Earth exercises, Internet exercises, and much more. The URLs listed in this book are given as links in chapter web pages, making it easy to go to a website without typing in its URL. www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/index.php Online exhibits at UCMP. University of California Museum of Paleontology virtual exhibit. Click on “Tour of Geologic Time.”

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www.earth-time.org Earthtime. A site for international collaborations among geochronologists and other geologists interested in refining numerical time. Check out the sections on education and mass spectrometry. www.talkorigins.org/origins/faqs.html Talk Origins. This is an excellent site for in-depth information on geologic time. Click on “Age of the Earth.” Topics include isotopic dating, the geologic time scale, and changing views of the age of Earth. The site includes in-depth presentations of arguments for a young Earth and the scientific rebuttals to them. www.asa3.org/ASA/resources/Wiens.html Radiometric Dating: A Christian Perspective. At this website, you can get a very thorough knowledge of isotopic dating, how it works, and how it has been used to determine the age of Earth and other events. The author addresses concerns of people who feel that an old Earth is incompatible with their religious beliefs.

Animation This chapter includes the following animation on the book’s website at www.mhhe.com/carlson9e. 8.25 The geologic history of the Earth scaled to a single year

www.nemo.sciencecourseware.org/VirtualDating/ Virtual Dating. This site provides an excellent, interactive way of learning how isotopic dating works. You can change data presented and watch graphs and other illustrations change accordingly. Quizzes help you understand the material.

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9 Atoms, Elements, and Minerals Relationships to Earth Systems Minerals Introduction Minerals and Rocks

Atoms and Elements Ions and Bonding Crystalline Structures The Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron Nonsilicate Minerals

Variations in Mineral Structures and Compositions The Physical Properties of Minerals Color Streak Luster Hardness External Crystal Form Cleavage Fracture Specific Gravity Special Properties Chemical Tests

The Many Conditions of Mineral Formation Summary

T

his chapter is the first of six on the material of which Earth is made. The following chapters are mostly about rocks. Nearly all rocks are made of minerals. Therefore, to be ready to learn about rocks, you must first understand what minerals are as well as the characteristics of some of the most common minerals. In this chapter, you are introduced to some basic principles of chemistry (this is for those of you who have not had a chemistry course). This will help you understand material covered in the chapters on rocks, weathering, and the composition of Earth’s crust and its interior. You will discover that each mineral is composed of specific Crystals of tourmaline (variety: elbaite). Differences in color within each crystal are due to small changes in chemical composition incorporated into the minerals as they grew. Photo © Parvinder Sethi

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chemical elements, the atoms of which are in a remarkably orderly arrangement. A mineral’s chemistry and the architecture of its internal structure determine the physical properties used to distinguish it from other minerals. You should learn how to readily determine physical properties and use them to identify common minerals. (Appendix A is a further guide to identifying minerals.)

Relationships to Earth Systems Minerals are part of the geosphere (the solid Earth system). However, many minerals form through interaction with other components of Earth systems (described in chapter 1). Some minerals form in water—the hydrosphere. For example, calcite (the mineral that makes up the common rock limestone) forms when calcium and carbon dioxide are precipitated from

MINERALS Introduction Have you ever wondered what all those different-colored spots in your granite countertop are? Or where we get the materials that we use to make everyday objects like cars, bikes, and televisions? Or what exactly are all those pretty gemstones we use in jewelry? The answer to all of these questions and more is minerals! The importance of minerals to human life as we know it is immeasurable. Minerals are the source of many of the resources we use in everyday life such as lead, copper, iron, or gold. They are also the source of many of our dietary supplements such as magnesium or calcium (some iron-fortified cereals contain finely ground magnetite). Some minerals are sought after because of their shape, color, or rarity. To geologists, minerals are important because they are the building blocks of the rocks that make up the earth. The minerals in rocks tell a very important story about the origin of our world and, indeed, about all Earth-like planets. The considerable amount of information conveyed by minerals enriches our appreciation for nature. The study of minerals is called mineralogy. About 4,500 different minerals have been identified, but, of these, only a couple hundred are really common and, of those, only about twenty form the majority of all rocks. Each type of mineral is distinguished by a combination of properties, some of which we can see with the unaided eye, others that are discernable only at the microscopic and atomic levels. Examples of these properties include color, luster, hardness, chemical composition, and the transmission of light under a microscope. Minerals are so important and so easily distinguishable that geologists use them as the basis for classifying almost all rocks. For most people, the term mineral brings to mind gemstones or dietary supplements. Often the term is used to identify something that is inorganic, as in “animal, vegetable, or

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seawater. Calcite can also be formed by organisms (the biosphere) creating shells or other hard parts. Coral, clams, and oysters create hard parts of calcite derived from seawater. Some minerals form from interaction between the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. Halite, which we know as table salt, forms when salty water is evaporated. Minerals can also be lost to or changed by the atmosphere and hydrosphere. Halite will dissolve when immersed in fresh water. Clay minerals form when water, with dissolved atmospheric gases, reacts with other minerals. A newly formed clay mineral has water incorporated into its crystal structure. Humans (part of the biosphere) are prodigious users of minerals. Most of what we make or use depends on minerals. We make bricks out of clay. Our jewelry may be made from gold as well as gems such as diamonds and emeralds. Steel is made from iron-rich and other metal-bearing minerals.

mineral.” When vitamin advertisers and nutritional specialists talk about “minerals,” they are generally referring to single elements—such as magnesium, iron, or calcium—that have certain dietary benefits. Gemstones are minerals that are valued for their beauty and have been cut and polished. For geologists, the term mineral has a very specific definition: A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid that has a specific chemical composition. What does all of this mean? Naturally occurring tells us that a mineral must form through natural geologic processes. Synthetic diamonds, while possessing all of the other attributes of a mineral (inorganic, crystalline, specific chemical composition) cannot be considered true minerals because they are not formed naturally. Inorganic means that minerals are not composed of the complex hydrocarbon molecules that are the basis of life-forms such as humans and plants. Minerals have a specific chemical composition that can be described by a chemical formula. Chemical formulas tell you which elements are in the mineral and in what proportion. For example, the common mineral halite (rock salt) has a chemical composition of NaCl. It is made of the two elements sodium and chlorine with one sodium atom for every atom of chlorine. Many minerals contain more than just two elements. Potassium feldspar, a very common mineral in the earth’s crust, is made up of the elements potassium, aluminum, silicon, and oxygen. The formula for potassium feldspar is written KalSi3O8. This means that for every atom of potassium in the mineral, there is one atom of aluminum, there are three of silicon, and there are eight of oxygen. All minerals have a crystalline structure where the atoms that make up the mineral are arranged in an orderly, repeating, three-dimensional pattern. The print by M.C. Escher (figure 9.1) vividly expresses what crystallinity is about. You can visualize what crystallinity is in nature by substituting identical clusters of atoms for each fish and imagining the clusters

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FIGURE 9.2 Model of the crystal structure of the mineral natrolite. The small (gray) spheres represent sodium; the large (blue) spheres are water molecules. The “pyramids” are siliconoxygen tetrahedra (explained in the text). From M. Ross, M. J. K. Flohr, and D. R. Ross, Crystalline Solution Series and order-disorder within the natrolite mineral group. American Mineralogist 77, 685–703. Reprinted by permission of the Mineralogical Society of America.

FIGURE 9.1 Photo © M. C. Escher’s “Depth.” © 2009 The M. C. Escher Company-Holland. All rights reserved. www.mcescher.com

packed together. Figure 9.2 is a model of the crystal structure of one mineral as determined by the way X rays travel through the mineral (described later in the chapter).

Minerals and Rocks Now that we have considered the definition of a mineral, it is important to consider the difference between minerals and rocks. Figure 9.3 contains a picture of the common rock-type granite. Notice the different colors in the granite. The large pink crystals are the mineral potassium feldspar which we have already talked about. The large white crystals are the mineral plagioclase feldspar which is related to potassium feldspar but contains calcium and sodium instead of potassium. The smaller, glassy-looking crystals are the mineral quartz. The small dark mineral grains are biotite mica. From this picture, it is clear that granite is composed of more than one type of mineral and, thus, the definition of a mineral would not fit this rock. Rocks are defined as naturally formed aggregates of minerals or mineral-like substances. The granite in figure 9.3,

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therefore, is a rock that is made up of the minerals quartz, plagioclase feldspar, potassium feldspar, and biotite. A rock can be composed of a single mineral. For example, limestone is composed of the mineral calcite. The reason that limestone is a rock and not defined simply as the mineral calcite is that the limestone is made up of multiple crystals of calcite either grown in an interlocking pattern or cemented together. Although limestone is made up of a single mineral type, it is still an aggregate of many mineral grains. Some rocks can be comprised of nonmineral substances. For example, coal is made of partially decomposed organic matter. Obsidian is made of silica glass which is not crystalline and therefore not a mineral. It is very important to keep the distinction between elements, minerals, and rocks clear when learning about geology. Rocks are composed of minerals and minerals are composed of atoms of elements bonded together in an orderly crystalline structure. Look again at figure 9.3 and notice how the close-up image of quartz shows the atoms bonded together in a repeating crystalline structure. How do the atoms in a mineral like quartz stick together? Why are minerals crystalline at all? In the next section, we will review the basic structure of atoms and consider why atoms bond together to form minerals. We will see how science reveals an underlying order to physical reality that is breathtaking and largely hidden from view when we look at the apparent randomness and chaos of the world.

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electrons are so tiny that their mass does not contribute to the atomic mass of the atom. The atomic mass number of the oxygen atom shown in figure 9.4 is 16 (eight protons plus eight neutrons) and is indicated by the symbol 16O. Heavier elements have more neutrons and protons than do lighter ones. For example, the B heavy element gold has an atomic mass number of 197, whereas helium has an atomic mass number of only 4. Biotite (black) Isotopes of an element are atoms containing different numbers of neutrons but the same number of protons. Isotopes are either stable or unstable. An unstable, or radioactive, isotope is one in which protons or neutrons are, over time, spontaneously lost or gained by the nucleus. The subatomic particles that unstable Potassium feldspar (pink) Quartz (transparent, light gray) isotopes emit are what Geiger counters detect. C A This is radioactivity, which we know can be hazardous in high doses. Unstable isotopes of FIGURE 9.3 uranium and a few other elements are very The rock granite is made up of the minerals quartz, potassium feldspar, plagioclase feldspar, and biotite mica. The mineral quartz (S1O2) is made up of atoms of the elements silicon (purple) and oxygen (red) bonded important to geology because they are used to together. Photo by C. C. Plummer determine the ages of rocks. These isotopes decay at a known rate and, as described in chapter 8, are used as a kind of geologic stopwatch that starts running at the time ATOMS AND ELEMENTS some rocks form. A stable isotope is an isotope that will retain all of its proTo better understand the nature of minerals and answer the tons and neutrons through time. During recent years, stable isoquestions just posed, we need to look at what is happening at an topes have become increasingly important to geology and extremely small, or atomic, scale. related sciences. Among the stable isotopes studied in geology Atoms are the smallest, electrically neutral assemblies of are those of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and hydrogen. energy and matter that we know exist in the universe. Atoms consist of a central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons. The nucleus contains positively charged protons and neutrally charged neutrons. Surrounding the nucleus is a cloud of negatively charged electrons. Electrons move in directions that allow them to balance out, or “neutralize” their charges. In atoms, electron charges are neutralized as the electrons crowd around the protons in the nucleus. It is the negative charges of electrons that provide the electrical force that we exploit to power the world. Many of us have the misfortune of knowing electrical force as a sharp jolt that occurs when we accidentally + + touch a live wire (or when we touched a wall socket when we were children!). This force results when the tiny, negatively charged electrons flow from one place to another, for example, along a wire. There are ninety-two different kinds of naturally occurring atoms. These are arranged in order of increasing size and complexity on the periodic table (see appendix D) used by chemists. We call each “species” of atom an element. An element is defined by the number of protons in its nucleus or its atomic number. For example, oxygen has an atomic number of 8 + Protons (8 are present) which tells you that it has eight protons (figure 9.4). In addition to having eight protons, each atom of oxygen contains eight Neutrons (usually 8 are present) electrons and, in its most abundant form, eight neutrons. The atomic mass number is the total number of neutrons FIGURE 9.4 and protons in an atom. Compared to protons and neutrons, Model of an oxygen atom and its nucleus. Plagioclase feldspar (white)

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EARTH SYSTEMS 9.1

Oxygen Isotopes and Climate Change xygen has three stable isotopes. 16O (the 16 tells us there are 16 protons and neutrons in the nucleus) is most abundant, making up 99.762% of Earth’s oxygen. 17 O constitutes 0.038%, and 18O, 0.200%. The ratio of 18O to 16O in a substance is determined using very accurate instruments called mass spectrometers. The ratio of 18O to 16O is 0.0020:1. If partitioning did not take place, we would expect to find the same ratio of isotopes in any substance containing oxygen. However, there is considerable deviation because of the tendency of lighter and heavier atoms to partition. Water that evaporates or is respirated by plants or animals will have a slightly higher abundance of the lighter isotope (16O) relative to the heavier isotope (18O) than the water left behind. Colder water will have a higher ratio of 18O to 16O than warmer water. Oxygen isotope studies have allowed scientists to identify climate changes during relatively recent geologic time by determining the temperature changes of ocean water. As we cannot sample past oceans, we use fossil shells to determine the oxygen isotope ratios at the time the organisms were alive. Foraminifera are microscopic and nearly microscopic shells of organisms that live in considerable abundance just beneath an ocean surface. While they are alive, they grow their shells of calcite (CaCO3), incorporating oxygen from the seawater. The oxygen in the shells has the 18O/16O ratio that is the same as that of the seawater. The particular isotopic ratio reflects the temperature of the seawater. When foraminifera die, their shells settle onto the deep ocean floor, where they form a thin layer upon older layers of tiny shells. Deep-sea drilling retrieves cores of these layers of sediment. Foraminifera from each layer are analyzed and the 18O/ 16O ratios determined. The ages of the layers are also determined. From these data, the temperature of the ocean’s surface water is inferred for the times the foraminifera were alive. Box figure 1 shows the fluctuation in temperature during the past 800,000 years. These studies show how an Earth systems approach has been useful in determining knowledge about the atmosphere, the geosphere, the biosphere, and the hydrosphere. We can see that climate warming and cooling are natural occurrences in the context

O

Their usefulness in scientific investigations is due to the tendency of isotopes of a given element to partition (distribute preferentially between substances) in different proportions due to their minute weight difference. For instance, oxygen and hydrogen isotopes can be used as a proxy for the surface temperature of the Earth because when water vapor evaporates from liquid water, the vapor will have a slightly higher ratio of lighter to heavier isotopes compared to the isotopes that remain in the liquid. Box 9.1 describes this in more detail. An element’s atomic weight is closely related to the mass number. Atomic weight, or atomic mass, is the weight of an average atom of an element, given in atomic mass units. Because

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Age in thousands of years 0.0

Cooler

Warmer

Glacial

Interglacial

100

200

300

400

500

600

BOX 9.1 ■ FIGURE 1 Changes in climate during the last 800,000 years as determined by oxygen isotope content in foraminifera shells found in deep-sea sediment cores. Blue—glacial times; red— interglacial times.

700

800

of geologic time. What the data do not tell us is what effect humans are having on the climate. Is the present climate warming part of a natural cycle, or is the rapid increase in greenhouse gases (notably CO2) reversing what would be a natural cooling cycle?

sodium has only one naturally occurring isotope, its atomic mass number and its atomic weight are the same—23. On the other hand, chlorine has two common isotopes, with mass numbers of 35 and 37. The atomic weight of chlorine, which takes into account the abundance of each isotope, is 35.5 because the lighter isotope is more common than the heavier one. The electrons in an atom are continuously on the move, like bees buzzing around a hive. Some are more energetic than others and move farther away from the nucleus as they move in the space around it. Although each electron moves throughout the space surrounding the nucleus, it will spend most of its time as part of an energy level. Energy levels used to be shown as

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concentric spherical shells, but chemists regard this as misleading. Each energy level can hold a specific number of electrons. The electrons will fill each level in order from the lowest to the highest energy. The most stable configuration for an atom is to have a full outer energy level or “shell.” On a periodic table, this is represented by the elements in the right-hand column, known as the noble gases. The first energy level is complete when it contains two electrons. The second and third energy levels are each complete with eight electrons. Consider the element helium. It has an atomic number of 2 which means there are two protons in its nucleus. An electrically neutral atom of helium contains two electrons. These two electrons fill the first energy level, so helium is a very stable, nonreactive element. Neon has an atomic number of 10 which means there are ten protons in its nucleus. Ten electrons balance the positive charge of the protons. Two of the electrons fill the lowest energy level. The remaining eight completely fill the second energy level. Like helium, neon is a very stable, nonreactive element. If all elements were like helium and neon there would be no chemical bonding, no minerals, and no life! However, inspection of the periodic table will show you that most elements do not have a full outer energy level. These elements will typically bond with others or other atoms of the same element in order to attain the stable electron configuration of a full outer energy level. For a more thorough explanation of atomic theory from a chemist’s perspective, go to Understanding Chemistry, www.chemguide. co.uk/atommenu.html#top.

levels but the third energy level will contain only seven of the eight electrons it needs to be filled. Chlorine will capture an electron and incorporate it in its outer energy level to attain a stable electron configuration. This produces an anion of chlorine with a single negative charge (Cl–). Thus, when sodium and chlorine atoms are close together, sodium gives up an electron to chlorine (figure 9.5) and the resultant positive charge on sodium and negative charge on chlorine bonds them together in ionic bonding (figure 9.6). Ionic bonding is the most common type of bonding in minerals. However, in most minerals the bonds between atoms are not purely ionic. Atoms are also commonly bonded together by covalent bonding, or bonding in which adjacent atoms share

Outer energy level filled with 8 electrons Inner energy level filled with 2 electrons Nucleus with 11 protons (11⫹)

A Sodium (Naⴙ) Energy levels filled with 8 electrons each

Energy level filled with 2 electrons Nucleus with 17 protons (17⫹)

Ions and Bonding Atoms can attain a full outer energy level by either exchanging electrons (ionic bonding) or sharing electrons (covalent and metallic bonding) with neighboring atoms. So far, we have been discussing electrically neutral atoms—those with an equal number of electrons and protons. An ion is an atom that has a surplus or deficit of electrons relative to the number of protons in its nucleus and therefore a positive or negative electrical charge. A cation is a positively charged ion that has fewer electrons than protons. An anion is a negatively charged ion that has more electrons than protons. Atoms with different charges are attracted to one another and this forms the basis for ionic bonding. Consider the elements chlorine and sodium that make up halite. Sodium has an atomic number of 11 which means there are eleven protons in its nucleus. A neutrally charged atom of sodium has eleven electrons to balance the positive charge of the eleven protons. Two of the electrons fill the lowest energy level, eight electrons fill the second energy level and the final electron will exist in the third energy level. This energy configuration is not stable so the sodium atom will give up its last electron if it can be taken up by other electron-deficient atoms. In each sodium ion, then, the eleven protons (11+) and ten electrons (10–) add up to a single positive charge (+1). Chemists customarily abbreviate the sodium cation as Na+. Chlorine has an atomic number of 17. An electrically neutral atom of chlorine will have seventeen protons and seventeen electrons. The seventeen electrons completely fill the first and second energy

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“Captured” electron needed to fill outer energy level B Chlorine (Clⴚ)

FIGURE 9.5 Diagrammatic representation of (A) sodium and (B) chlorine ions. The dots represent electrons in energy levels within an ion. Sodium has lost the electron that would have made it electrically neutral because a single electron in a higher energy level would be unstable. Chlorine has gained an electron to complete its outer energy level and make it stable.

Sodium (Na+) ion Chlorine (Cl–) ion

+

_

FIGURE 9.6 Ionic bonding between sodium (Na⫹) and chlorine (Cl⫺).

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electrons. Diamond is composed entirely of covalently bonded carbon atoms (figure 9.7). Carbon has an atomic number of 6, which means that it has six protons and six electrons. Two electrons fill the lowest energy level leaving four in the second energy level. Carbon atoms therefore need four more electrons in order to fill their outer energy level. When carbon atoms are packed closely together, electrons can be shared with neighboring atoms. Each of the outer energy level electrons will spend half of its time in one atom and half in an adjacent atom. Electrical neutrality is maintained and each atom, in a sense, has eight electrons in the outer energy level (even though they are not all there at the same time). Covalent bonds in diamond are very strong, and diamond is the hardest natural substance on Earth. Graphite, like diamond, is pure carbon. (That is to say graphite and diamond are polymorphs—different crystal structures having the same composition.) Graphite is used in pencils and as a lubricant. Amazingly, the hardest mineral and one of the softest have the same composition. The distinction is in the bonding. In diamond, the covalent bonds form a three-dimensional structure. In graphite, the covalent bonds form sheets that are held together by much weaker electrostatic bonds. It is these weak bonds that make graphite so soft. You can examine this in more detail by following the instructions in the Recommended Web Investigation box. A third type of bonding, metallic bonding, is found in metals, such as copper or gold. The atoms are closely packed and the electrons move freely throughout the crystal so as to hold the atoms together. The ease with which electrons move accounts for the high electrical conductivity of metals. Finally, after all atoms have bonded together, there may be weak, attractive forces remaining. This is the very weak force that holds adjacent sheets of mica or graphite together. It

Carbon nuclei

223

is also the force that holds water molecules together in ice (see Box 9.7). Recommended Web Investigation

To see in 3-D how graphite and diamond crystal structures differ, go to http://cst-www.nrl.navy.mil/lattice/. From the small pictures of crystal structures, click on “Carbon and Related Structures,” then from a new set of pictures click on “Graphite (A9).” This brings up a graphite page. Click on “visualize the structure.” You can now click and drag on the image and rotate it so you can see it from any perspective. The rods represent bonds. Each carbon atom is bonded to three others to form a hexagonal pattern in a sheet. There are no bonds shown between adjacent sheets. So the sheets of bonded carbon will easily slide over one another. Now return to the “Carbon and Related Structures” page. Go down the page of small pictures and click on “Diamond.” Again, click on “visualize the structure,” and you can rotate the crystal structure of diamond. Notice the three-dimensional bonding between the carbon atoms (ignore the atoms floating alone outside the structure).

Crystalline Structures A requirement for all three types of bonding that we have discussed is that the atoms are in close proximity to each other. Consider ionically bonded chlorine and sodium in halite. Under ordinary circumstances, like-charged ions repel one another and quickly move apart. They come close together only to form a stable mineral structure because they are “glued” into place by bonding with ions of the opposite charge. In other words, the need to neutralize electrical charges, while at the same time keeping like-charges apart, works to create a regular arrangement of atoms. Examine the halite in figure 9.8 and notice how the sodium and chlorine ions alternate so that each cation is in contact only with anions. Covalent and metallic bonding

Covalent bonds (electrons shared by adjacent atoms)

Sodium (Na) Chlorine (Cl)

FIGURE 9.7

FIGURE 9.8

Covalent bonding in diamond. Three-dimensional arrangement of carbon atoms in diamond. The rods represent bonds between adjacent carbon atoms; the blue dashes in the rods represent 2 of the 8 electrons in the outer shell of both atoms.

Model of the atomic structure of halite. The alternating three-dimensional stacking of atoms creates a box-like grid that is expressed in the cubic form of halite crystals seen in hand samples.

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require that the atoms are packed together tightly enough that electrons can migrate between the atoms. The field of swarming electrons extends farther out from the atomic nuclei of some elements than it does for others. The “size” of an atom (or an ion) is essentially the radius of its electron field; its ionic radius, in other words (figure 9.9). Ionic radii play an important role in the arrangement of atoms in a crystalline structure as well. When ions come together they tend to pack as efficiently as possible. No irregular holes may exist in the arrangement. A large number of anions (negatively charged ions) may crowd around a single, large cation (positively charged ion), while only a few anions may cluster about a small cation (as in figure 9.10).

Negative ions (anions)

–2

O 1.40 Å

OH 1.40 Å

Positive ions (cations) Fe+2 0.78 Å

Mg+2 0.72 Å

Si+4 0.26 Å

Al+3 0.535 Å

Na+ 1.02 Å

Ca+2 1.00 Å

Fe+3 0.64 Å

Of particular importance in this respect are the crystal structures derived from the two most common elements in the Earth’s crust—oxygen and silicon (box 9.2). Silicon is the element used to make computer chips. Silica is a term for oxygen combined with silicon. Because silicon is the second most abundant element in the crust, most minerals contain silica. The common mineral quartz (SiO2) is pure silica that has crystallized. Quartz is one of many minerals that are silicates, substances that contain silica (as indicated by their chemical formulas). Most silicate minerals also contain one or more other elements.

The Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron Silicon and oxygen combine to form the atomic framework for most common minerals on Earth. The basic structural unit consists of 4 oxygen atoms (anions) packed together around a single, much smaller silicon atom, as shown in figure 9.10A. The four-sided, pyramidal, geometric shape called a tetrahedron is used to represent the 4 oxygen atoms surrounding a silicon atom. Each corner of the tetrahedron represents the center

SiO4

4

SiO4

4

–4

–8

4

–8 SiO4

–4

K+ 1.38 Å

FIGURE 9.9

SiO4

–4

4

–4

Sizes of most common ions in minerals, given in angstroms (Å). An angstrom is 10–8 cm. The ions that are close in size are in the same row, and these can replace one another in a crystal structure.

A

Oxygen (O–2)

B Si2 O7

Silicon (Si+4)

6

Si2 O7

–6

A Arrangement of atoms in silicon-oxygen tetrahedron

B Diagrammatic representation of a silicon-oxygen tetrahedron

FIGURE 9.10 (A) The silicon-oxygen tetrahedron. (B) The silicon-oxygen tetrahedron showing the corners of the tetrahedron coinciding with the centers of oxygen ions.

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C

6

–6

D

FIGURE 9.11 Two single tetrahedra (A and B) require more positively charged ions to maintain electrical neutrality than two tetrahedra sharing an oxygen atom (C and D). B and D are the schematic representations of A and C, respectively.

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I N G R E AT E R D E P T H 9 . 2

Elements in the Earth

E

stimates of the chemical composition of Earth’s crust are based on many chemical analyses of the rocks exposed on Earth’s surface. (Models for the composition of the interior of the Earth—the core and the mantle—are based on more indirect evidence.) Table 1 lists the generally accepted estimates of the abundance of elements in the Earth’s crust. At first glance, the chemical composition of the crust (and, therefore, the average rock) seems quite surprising. We think of oxygen as the O2 molecules in the air we breathe. Yet most rocks are composed largely of oxygen, as it is the most abundant element in the Earth’s crust. Unlike the oxygen gas in air, oxygen in minerals is strongly bonded to other elements. By weight, oxygen accounts for almost half the crust, but it takes up 93% of the volume of an average rock. This is because the oxygen atom takes BOX 9.2 ■ TABLE 1

Crustal Abundance of Elements Percentage by Weight

Percentage by Volume

O

46.6

93.8

60.5

Si

27.7

0.9

20.5

Element

Symbol

Oxygen Silicon

Percentage of Atoms

Aluminum

Al

8.1

0.8

6.2

Iron

Fe

5.0

0.5

1.9

Calcium

Ca

3.6

1.0

1.9

Sodium

Na

2.8

1.2

2.5

K

2.6

1.5

1.8

Mg

2.1

0.3

1.4

1.5

3.3

Potassium Magnesium All other elements

of an oxygen atom (figure 9.10B). This basic building block of a crystal is called a silicon-oxygen tetrahedron (also known as a silica tetrahedron). Take a look at figure 9.3 and see how geometric tetrahedra are used to represent oxygen and silicon. Imagine how impossible it would be to depict the crystalline structure if you had to draw in four oxygen atoms for each of the yellow tetrahedra. The atoms of the tetrahedron are strongly bonded together. Within a silicon-oxygen tetrahedron, the negative charges exceed the positive charges (see figure 9.11A). A single siliconoxygen tetrahedron is a complex ion with a formula of SiO4⫺4 because silicon has a charge of ⫹4 and the four oxygen ions have eight negative charges (–2 for each oxygen atom). A silicon-oxygen tetrahedron can either bond with positively charged ions, such as iron or aluminum, or with other silicon -oxygen tetrahedra. In other words, for the siliconoxygen tetrahedron to be stable within a crystal structure, it must either (1) be balanced by enough positively charged ions or (2) share oxygen atoms with adjacent tetrahedra (as shown in figures 9.11C and D) and therefore reduce the need for extra,

car69403_ch09_216-241.indd 225

up a large amount of space relative to its weight. (Note how much bigger oxygen atoms are relative to other atoms in figure 9.10 and others.) It is not an exaggeration to regard the crust as a mass of oxygen with other elements occupying positions in crystalline structures between oxygen atoms. Note that the third most abundant element is aluminum, which is more common in rocks than iron. Knowing this, one might assume that aluminum would be less expensive than iron, but of course this is not the case. Common rocks are not mined for aluminum because it is so strongly bonded to oxygen and other elements. The amount of energy required to break these bonds and separate the aluminum makes the process too costly for commercial production. Aluminum is mined from the uncommon deposits where aluminum-bearing rocks have been weathered, producing compounds in which the crystalline bonds are not so strong. Collectively, the eight elements listed in table 1 account for more than 98% of the weight of the crust. All the other elements total only about 1.5%. Absent from the top eight elements are such vital elements as hydrogen (tenth by weight) and carbon (seventeenth by weight). The element copper is only twenty-seventh in abundance, but our industrialized society is highly dependent on this metal. Most of the wiring in electronic equipment is copper, as are many of the telephone and power cables that crisscross the continent. However, the Earth’s crust is not homogeneous, and geological processes have created concentrations of elements such as copper in a few places. Exploration geologists are employed by mining companies to discover where (as well as why) ore deposits of copper and other metals occur (see chapter 21).

positively charged ions. The structures of silicate minerals range from an isolated silicate structure, which depends entirely on positively charged ions to hold the tetrahedra together, to framework silicates (quartz, for example), in which all oxygen atoms are shared by adjacent tetrahedra. The most common types of silicate structures are shown diagrammatically in figure 9.12 and are discussed next.

Isolated Silicate Structure Silicate minerals that are structured so that none of the oxygen atoms are shared by tetrahedra have an isolated silicate structure. The individual silicon-oxygen tetrahedra are bonded together by positively charged ions (figure 9.13). The common mineral olivine, for example, contains two ions of either magnesium (Mg⫹2) or iron (Fe⫹2) for each silicon-oxygen tetrahedron. The formula for olivine is (Mg,Fe)2SiO4.

Chain Silicates A chain silicate structure forms when two of a tetrahedron’s oxygen atoms are shared with adjacent tetrahedra to form a

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CHAPTER 9 Atoms, Elements, and Minerals Example Isolated silicate structure

Single-chain structure

Olivine

Pyroxene group

Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron apex toward you Double-chain structure

Amphibole group

Mg++ or Fe++

Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron apex away from you

FIGURE 9.13 Diagram of the crystal structure of olivine, as seen from one side of the crystal.

Positive ion

Oxygen Silicon

Sheet silicate structure

Framework silicate structure

Mica group Clay group

Quartz Feldspar group

A

Common silicate structures. Arrows indicate directions in which structure repeats indefinitely.

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B

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

etc.

FIGURE 9.12

chain (figures 9.12 and 9.14). Each chain, which extends indefinitely, has a net excess of negative charges. Minerals may have a single- or double-chain structure. For single-chain silicate structures, the ratio of silicon to oxygen (as figure 9.14 shows) is 1:3; therefore, each mineral in this group (the pyroxene group) incorporates SiO3⫺2 in its formula, and it must be electrically balanced by the positive ions (e.g., Mg⫹2) that hold the parallel chains together. If a pyroxene has magnesium, as the ⫹2 ions bonding the chains shown in figure 9.14A, it has a formula of MgSiO3. A double-chain silicate is essentially two adjacent single chains that are sharing oxygen atoms. The amphibole group is

+2

etc.

etc.

etc.

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

+2

etc.

etc.

FIGURE 9.14 Single-chain silicate structure. (A) Model of a single-chain silicate mineral. (B) The same chain silicate shown diagrammatically as linked tetrahedra.

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E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 9 . 3

Asbestos—How Hazardous Is It?

A

sbestos is a generic name for fibrous aggregates of minerals (box figure 1). Because it does not ignite or melt in fire, asbestos has a number of valuable industrial applications. Woven into cloth, it may be used to make suits for firefighters. It can also be used as a fireproof insulation for homes and other buildings and has commonly been used in plaster for ceilings. Five of the six commercial varieties of asbestos are amphiboles (double-chain silicates), known commercially as “brown” and “blue” asbestos. The sixth variety is chrysotile, which is not a chain silicate and belongs to the serpentine family of minerals (sheet silicates), and is more commonly known as “white asbestos.” White asbestos is, by far, the most commonly used in North America (about 95% of that used in the United States). Public fear of asbestos in the United States has resulted in its being virtually outlawed by the federal government. Tens of billions of dollars have been spent (probably unnecessarily) to remove or seal off asbestos from schools and other public buildings. Asbestos’ bad reputation comes from the high death rate among asbestos workers exposed, without protective attire, to extremely high levels of asbestos dust. Some of these workers, who were covered with fibers, were called “snowmen.” In Manville, New Jersey, children would catch the “snow” (asbestos particles released from a nearby asbestos factory) in their mouths. The high death rates among asbestos workers are attributed to asbestosis and lung cancer. Asbestosis is similar to silicosis contracted by miners; essentially,

the lungs become clogged with asbestos dust after prolonged heavy exposure. The incidence of cancer has been especially high among asbestos workers who were also smokers. It’s not clear that heavy exposure to white asbestos caused cancer among nonsmoking asbestos workers. However, brown and blue (amphibole) varieties, which are not mined in North America, have been linked to cancer for heavy exposure (even if for a short term). What are the hazards of asbestos to an individual in a building where walls or ceilings contain asbestos? Recent studies from a wide range of scientific disciplines indicate that the risks are minimal to nonexistent, at least for exposure to white asbestos. The largest asbestos mines in the world are at Thetford Mines, Quebec. A study of longtime Thetford Mines residents, whose houses border the waste piles from the asbestos mines, indicated that their incidence of cancer was no higher than that of Canadians overall. Nor have studies in the United States been able to link nonoccupational exposure to asbestos and cancer. One estimate of the risk of death from cancer due to exposure to asbestos dust is one per 100,000 lifetimes. (Compare this to the risk of death from lightning of 4 per 100,000 lifetimes or automobile travel—1,600 deaths per 100,000 lifetimes.) Following the collapse of New York’s World Trade Center towers on September 11, 2001, the dust in the air from destroyed buildings contained high levels of asbestos—much higher than the safety levels set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Faced with widespread panic and a mass exodus from the city, the EPA reversed itself and declared the air safe. In doing so, the agency admitted that its standards were too stringent and were based on long-term exposure. In California, a closed-down white asbestos mining site designated for EPA Superfund cleanup is a short distance from where asbestos is being mined cleanly and efficiently. It is packaged and shipped to Japan. It cannot be used in the United States, because the United States is the only industrialized nation whose laws do not distinguish between asbestos types and permit the use of chrysotile. A reason chrysotile is less hazardous than amphibole asbestos is that chrysotile fibers will dissolve in lungs and amphibole will not. Experiments by scientists at Virginia Polytechnic Institute indicate that it takes about a year for chrysotile fibers to dissolve in lung fluids, whereas, glass fibers of the same size will dissolve only after several hundred years. Yet fiberglass is being used increasingly as a substitute for asbestos.

Additional Resources Chrysotile Institute •

www.chrysotile.com

BOX 9.3 ■ FIGURE 1

National Cancer Institute

Chrysotile asbestos. Photo © Parvinder Sethi

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www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/asbestos

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CHAPTER 9 Atoms, Elements, and Minerals

E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 9 . 4

Clay Minerals that Swell

+

+

C

lay minerals are very common at Earth’s surface; they are a major component of soil. There are a great number of different clay minerals. What they all have in common is that they are sheet silicates. They differ by which ions hold sheets together and by the number of sheets “sandwiched” together. Ceramic products and bricks are made from clay. Surprisingly, some clay minerals are edible; some are used in the manufacturing of pills. Kaolinite, a clay mineral, was, until recently, the main ingredient in Kaopectate, a remedy for intestinal distress. Popular fastfood chains use clay minerals as a thickener for shakes (you can tell which ones, because the chains do not call them “milk shakes”—they do not use milk). Montmorillonite is one of the more interesting clay minerals. It is better known as expansive clay or swelling clay. If water is added to the montmorillonite, the water molecules are adsorbed into the spaces between silicate layers (box figure 1). This results in a large increase in volume, sometimes up to several hundred percent. The pressure generated can be up to 50,000 kilograms per square meter. This is sufficient to lift a good-sized building. If a building is erected on expansive clay that subsequently gets wet, a portion of the building will be shoved upward. In all likelihood, the foundation will break. Some people think that expansive soils have caused more damage than earthquakes and landslides combined. Damage in the United States is estimated to cost $2 billion a year. On the other hand, swelling clays can be put to use. Montmorillonite, mixed with water, can be pumped into fractured rock or concrete. When the water is adsorbed, swelling clay expands to fill and seal the crack. The technique is particularly useful where dams have been built against fractured bedrock. Sealing the cracks with expansive clays ensures that water will stay in the reservoir behind the dam.

characterized by two parallel chains in which every other tetrahedron shares an oxygen atom with the adjacent chain’s tetrahedron (figure 9.12). In even a small amphibole crystal, millions of parallel double chains are bonded together by positively charged ions. Chain silicates tend to be shaped like columns, needles, or even fibers. The long structure of the external form corresponds to the linear dimension of the chain structure. Fibrous aggregates of certain chain silicates are called asbestos (see box 9.3).

Sheet Silicates In a sheet silicate structure each tetrahedron shares three oxygen atoms to form a sheet (figure 9.12). The mica group and the clay group of minerals are sheet silicates. The positive ions that hold the sheets together are “sandwiched” between the silicate sheets (box 9.4).

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+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Clay mineral layer

Water molecules

+

+

+

+

Clay mineral layer

+

A Dry clay mineral

+

+

+

+

+

+

B Expansion due to adsorption of water

BOX 9.4 ■ FIGURE 1 Expansive clays. (The orange ion represents aluminum in the clay layers and is not drawn to scale.) The “roller-coaster road” is the result of uneven swelling and heaving of steeply dipping bedrock layers. Courtesy of David C. Noe, Colorado Geological Survey

Framework Silicates When all four oxygen ions are shared by adjacent tetrahedra, a framework silicate structure is formed. Quartz is a framework silicate mineral. A feldspar is a framework silicate as well. However, its structure is slightly more complex because aluminum substitutes for some of the silicon atoms in some of the tetrahedra. Note from figure 9.9 that the ionic radius for aluminum is close to that of silicon, therefore Al⫹3 substitutes readily for Si⫹4. This means that additional positive ions must be incorporated into the crystal structure to compensate for the aluminum’s lower charge. For feldspars these will be Na⫹, K⫹, or Ca⫹2. Hence, feldspars, which collectively are the most abundant mineral group in Earth’s crust, have formulas of NaAlSi3O8, KAlSi3O8, and CaAl2Si2O8. The same kind of substitution also takes place in amphiboles and micas, which helps account for the wide variety of silicate minerals.

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Nonsilicate Minerals Although not as abundant in Earth, nonsilicates, minerals that do not contain silica, are nevertheless important. The carbonates have CO3 in their formulas. Calcite, CaCO3, is a member of this group and is one of the most abundant minerals at the Earth’s surface where it occurs mainly in limestone. In dolomite, also a carbonate, magnesium replaces some calcium in the calcite formula. Gypsum is a sulfate (containing SO4). Sulfides have S but not O in their formulas (pyrite, FeS2, is an example). Hematite (Fe2O3) is an oxide—that is, it contains oxygen not bonded to Si, C, or S. Halite, NaCl, is a member of the chloride group. Native elements have only one element in their formulas. Some examples are gold (Au), copper (Cu), and the two minerals that are composed of pure carbon (C), diamond and graphite.

VARIATIONS IN MINERAL STRUCTURES AND COMPOSITIONS It stands to reason that only a limited number of mineral compositions exist in nature because atoms cannot be combined randomly and they can only come together to form a restricted number of crystalline structures. This does not mean, however, that each kind of mineral is compositionally different, or that individual mineral types can’t show some internal compositional variation. Ions of like size and charge may freely substitute for one another in the atomic structures of minerals. Iron (Fe2⫹) and magnesium (Mg2⫹), for example, interchangeably substitute to create a range of compositions in the common silicate mineral olivine. This is represented by the parentheses in the formula of olivine—(Mg,Fe)2SiO4. Olivine (see figure 9.13) is an example of a solid solution series, with pure magnesium olivine, Mg2SiO4, forming the bright green variety forsterite (or peridot, as a gem), and pure iron olivine forming the jet black variety fayalite, Fe2SiO4. The crystal structures of forsterite and fayalite are virtually identical. Some minerals that show solid solution, like plagioclase feldspar and augite (a pyroxene), also show compositional zoning, with the centers of crystals dominated by one type of cation and the rims dominated by another. The grains of plagioclase in certain igneous rocks typically have calcium-rich centers and sodium-rich rims (figure 9.15). The change is due to the cooling of the molten rock from which the plagioclase crystallizes. Calcium-rich plagioclase is more stable at the high temperatures in which the crystals start growing. The crystals then develop sodium-rich rims as the remaining melt crystallizes. Some minerals can have the same chemical composition but have different crystalline structures—described earlier as polymorphism. For example, calcite and aragonite both have

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FIGURE 9.15 Zoning in plagioclase feldspar, as seen under a polarizing microscope. The concentric color bands each indicate different amounts of Ca and Na in the crystal structure. Photographed using cross-polarizers. Photo by L. Hammersley

the same formula CaCO3. Their atomic crystal structures differ greatly, however. As you might expect, these two similar, but distinctive mineral types result from separate conditions and processes of formation, with aragonite usually being an indicator of high-pressure crystallization. Graphite and diamond, as discussed earlier, are another, particularly spectacular example of polymorphism. Both minerals are made up of elemental carbon. They are unusual in that there is no other element involved in their structures. Besides their extreme differences in hardness, graphite is dark and appears metallic while diamond is usually transparent and has a brilliant luster. Graphite’s crystal structure is sheetlike and it forms within the crust, while diamond originates much deeper, under the higher pressure conditions of the mantle. It is important to note that the physical characteristics of minerals that we can observe without complex laboratory equipment, such as color, hardness, and luster, are linked closely with the crystalline structures and chemical compositions of the minerals.

THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS The best approach to understanding physical properties of minerals is to obtain a sample of each of the most common rockforming minerals named in table 9.1. The properties described can then be identified in these samples. To identify an unknown mineral, you should first determine its physical properties, then match the properties with the appropriate mineral, using a mineral identification key or chart such as the ones included in appendix A of this book. With a bit of experience, you may get to know the diagnostic properties for each common mineral and no longer need to refer to an identification table.

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TABLE 9.1

Name

CHAPTER 9 Atoms, Elements, and Minerals

Minerals of the Earth’s Crust Chemical Composition

Type of Silicate Structure or Chemical Group

The most common rock-forming minerals (These make up more than 90% of the Earth’s crust.) Feldspar Group Plagioclase

Ca Al2 Si2 O8 Na Al Si3 O8 K Al Si3 O8

Potassium feldspar (orthoclase, microcline) Pyroxene Group (Ca, Na)(Mg, Fe) (augite most (Si, Al)2 O6 common) Amphibole Group Complex Fe, Mg, (hornblende Al silicate most hydroxide common) Quartz SiO2 Mica Group Muscovite K Al3 Si3 O10 (OH)2 Biotite K (Mg, Fe)3 Al Si3 O10 (OH)2

Framework silicate Framework silicate

Single-chain silicate

Double-chain silicate

Framework silicate Sheet silicate Sheet silicate

Color The first thing most people notice about a mineral is its color. For some minerals, color is a useful property. Muscovite mica is silvery white or colorless, whereas biotite mica is black or dark brown. Most of the ferromagnesian minerals (iron/ magnesium-bearing), such as augite, hornblende, olivine, and biotite, are either green or black. Because color is so obvious, beginning students tend to rely too heavily on it as a key to mineral identification. Unfortunately, color is also apt to be the most ambiguous of physical properties (figure 9.16). If you look at a number of quartz crystals, for instance, you may find specimens that are white, pink, black, yellow, or purple. Color is extremely variable in quartz and many other minerals because even minute chemical impurities can strongly influence it. Obviously, it is poor procedure to attempt to identify quartz strictly on the basis of color. Another way to consider how color is not always a good diagnostic property is to consider the minerals quartz, gypsum, calcite, and plagioclase feldspar. All of these minerals can have a white color. How then can you tell them apart? You have to determine other physical properties in addition to color.

Streak Streak is the color of the powder formed when a mineral is crushed. A mineral’s streak can be observed by scraping the edge of the sample across an unglazed porcelain plate known

Other common rock-forming minerals Silicates Olivine Garnet group Clay minerals group Nonsilicates Calcite Dolomite Gypsum

(Mg, Fe)2 Si O4 Complex silicates Complex Al silicate hydroxides

Isolated silicate Isolated silicate Sheet silicate

CaCO3 CaMg (CO3)2 CaSO4 ⋅ 2H2O

Carbonate Carbonate Sulfate

Much less common minerals of commercial value Halite Diamond Gold Hematite Magnetite Chalcopyrite Sphalerite Galena

NaCl C Au (gold) Fe2O3 Fe3O4 CuFeS2 ZnS PbS

Chloride Native element Native element Oxide Oxide Sulfide Sulfide Sulfide

FIGURE 9.16 Why color may be a poor way of identifying minerals. These are all corundum gems, including ruby and sapphire. Photo © The Natural History Museum/Alamy

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I N G R E AT E R D E P T H 9 . 5

Precious Gems

D

iamond engagement rings are a tradition in our society. The diamond, often a significant financial commitment for the groom-to-be, symbolizes perpetual love. Jewelry with valuable gemstones is glamorous. We expect to see the rich and famous heavily bedecked with gemstones set in gold and other precious metals. Gemstones are varieties of certain minerals that are valuable because of their beauty. Precious gemstones, or, simply, precious stones, are particularly valuable; semiprecious stones are much less valuable. Diamond, sapphire, ruby, emerald, and aquamarine are regarded as precious stones. What they all have in common is that they are transparent with even coloration and have a hardness greater than quartz (7 on the hardness scale). Their hardness ensures that they are durable. Diamonds are usually clear, although some tinted varieties are particularly valuable. (The famous Hope diamond is blue.) Diamond’s appeal is largely due to its unique, brilliant luster (called adamantine luster). This results from the way that light reflects from within the crystal and is dispersed into rainbowlike colors. The facets that you see on a diamond have been cut (or, more correctly, ground, using diamond dust) to enhance the gem’s brilliance. The cut facets are not related to diamond’s natural form, which is octahedral (see opening picture for chapter 2 and box figure 1). Sapphire and ruby are both varieties of corundum (9 on Mohs’ scale). Sapphire can be various colors (except red), but blue sapphires are most valuable. Minute amounts of titanium and iron in the crystal structure give sapphire its blue coloration. Rubies are red due to trace amount of chromium in corundum. Emerald and aquamarine are varieties of beryl (hardness of 7.5). Emerald is the most expensive of these and owes its green color to chromium impurities. Aquamarine’s blue color is due to iron impurities in the crystal structure.

as a streak plate. This streak color is often very different from the color of the mineral and is usually more reliable than color as a diagnostic property. For instance, hematite always leaves a reddish brown streak though the sample may be brown or red or silver. Many metallic minerals leave a dark-colored streak whereas most nonmetallic minerals leave a white or pale-colored streak. Many minerals, in particular many of the silicate minerals, are harder than the streak plate and, thus, it can be very difficult to obtain their streak.

Luster The quality and intensity of light that is reflected from the surface of a mineral is termed luster. (A photograph cannot always show this quality.) The luster of a mineral is described by comparing it to familiar substances. Luster is either metallic or nonmetallic. A metallic luster gives a substance the appearance of being made of metal.

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BOX 9.5 ■ FIGURE 1 Cut diamond with facets that were ground into it using diamond dust on a lap. Photo © Steve Hamblin/Alamy, RF

Recommended Web Investigation The Image •

www.theimage.com/

Click on “Gemstone Gallery” and then “Beryl.” You can read about the properties of beryl and details about emerald and aquamarine. Below the description, you can access images of these gems. You can go back and click on “Sapphire” for information on sapphire and corundum. A photo of sapphires and a ruby is accessible at the bottom of the text. This site also contains information on how gems are faceted.

Metallic luster may be very shiny, like a chrome car part, or less shiny, like the surface of a broken piece of iron. Nonmetallic luster is more common. The most important type is glassy (also called vitreous) luster, which gives a substance a glazed appearance, like glass or porcelain. Most silicate minerals have this characteristic. The feldspars, quartz, the micas, and the pyroxenes and amphiboles all have a glassy luster. Less common is an earthy luster. This resembles the surface of unglazed pottery and is characteristic of the various clay minerals. Some uncommon lusters include resinous luster (appearance of resin), silky luster, and pearly luster.

Hardness The property of “scratchability,” or hardness, can be tested fairly reliably. For a true test of hardness, the harder mineral or substance must be able to make a groove or scratch on a smooth, fresh surface of the softer mineral. For example, quartz can always scratch calcite or feldspar and is thus said to be

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CHAPTER 9 Atoms, Elements, and Minerals

harder than both of these minerals. Substances can be compared to Mohs’ hardness scale, in which ten minerals are designated as standards of hardness (figure 9.17). The softest mineral, talc (used for talcum powder because it is softer than skin), is designated as 1. Diamond, the hardest natural substance on Earth, is 10 on the scale. (Its polymorph, graphite, has a hardness of 1.5.) Mohs’ scale is a relative hardness scale. Figure 9.17 shows the absolute hardness for the ten minerals. The absolute hardness is obtained using an instrument that measures how much pressure is required to indent a mineral. Note that the difference in absolute hardness between corundum (9) and diamond (10) is around six times the difference between corundum and topaz (8). Rather than carry samples of the ten standard minerals, a geologist doing field work usually relies on common objects to test for hardness (figure 9.17). A fingernail usually has a hardness of about 2 1/2. If you can scratch the smooth surface of a mineral with your fingernail, the hardness of the mineral must be less than 2 1/2 (figure 9.18). A copper coin or a penny has a hardness between 3 and 4; however, the brown, oxidized surface of most pennies is much softer, so check for a groove into the coin. A knife blade or a steel nail generally has a hardness slightly greater than 5, but it depends on the particular steel alloy used. A geologist uses a knife blade to distinguish between softer minerals, such as calcite, and similarly appearing harder minerals, such as quartz. Ordinary window glass, usually slightly harder than a knife blade (although some glass, such as that containing lead, is much softer), can be used in the same way as a knife blade for hardness tests. A file (one made of tempered steel for filing metal, not a fingernail file) can be used for a hardness of between 6 and 7. A porcelain streak plate also has a hardness of around 6 1/2.

External Crystal Form The crystal form of a mineral is a set of faces that have a definite geometric relationship to one another (figure 9.19). A wellformed crystal of halite, for example, consists of six faces all square and joined at right angles. The crystal form of halite is a cube, in other words. Crystals more commonly consist of several types of forms combined together to generate the full body of each specimen. As a rule of thumb, if two or more faces on a crystal are identical in shape and size, they belong to the same crystal form. Minerals displaying well-developed crystal faces have played an important role in the development of chemistry and physics. Steno, a Danish naturalist of the seventeenth century, first noted that the angle between two adjacent faces of quartz is always exactly the same, no matter what part of the world the quartz sample comes from or the color or size of the quartz. As shown in figure 9.20, the angle between any two adjacent sides of the six-sided “pillar” (which is called a prism by mineralogists) is always exactly 120°, while between a face of the “pillar” and one of the “pyramid” faces (actually part of a rhombohedron) the angle is always exactly 141°45′. The discovery of such regularity in nature usually has profound implications. When minerals other than quartz were stud-

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8,000

Diamond

7,000

6,000

5,000 Vickers kg/mm2

232

4,000

3,000 Steel file Window glass

Corundum

2,000 Copper coin Knife blade

Fingernail 1,000

at Fl ite uo yp Ca r su lci ite Ta m te lc G

1

Topaz

Ap

2

3

4

Quartz Feldspar

5 6 Mohs’

7

8

9

10

FIGURE 9.17 Mohs’ hardness scale plotted against Vickers indentation values (kg/mm2). Indentation values are obtained by an instrument that measures the force necessary to make a small indentation into a substance.

FIGURE 9.18 Fingernail (hardness of 2 1/2) easily scratches gypsum (hardness of 2). Photo © Par vinder Sethi

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ied, they too were found to have sets of angles for adjacent faces that never varied from sample to sample. This observation became formalized as the law of constancy of interfacial angles. Later the discovery of X-ray beams and their behavior in crystals confirmed Steno’s theory about the structure of crystals. Steno suspected that each type of mineral was composed of many tiny, identical building blocks, with the geometric shape of the crystal being a function of how these building blocks are put together. If you are stacking cubes, you can build

A

141°45⬘

141°45⬘ B 120°

120°

120°

120°120°

120°

120°

120°

C

120°

A

120°

120°

120°

120° 120° B

FIGURE 9.19

FIGURE 9.20

Characteristic crystal forms of three common minerals: (A) Cluster of quartz crystals. (B) Crystals of potassium feldspar. (C) Intergrown cubic crystals of fluorite. Photo A by C. C. Plummer. Photos B, C © Parvinder Sethi

Quartz crystals showing how interfacial angles remain the same in perfectly proportioned (A) and misshapen (B) crystals. Cuts perpendicular to the prisms show that all angles are exactly 120°. Photos © Parvinder Sethi

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CHAPTER 9 Atoms, Elements, and Minerals Cube faces

A

Dodecahedron faces B

Scalenohedron faces

+ + + + + + + + + + +

A

+ + + + + + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + + +

Sheet silicate layer

Because of weak bonds, mica splits easily between “sandwiches” Positive ions, sandwiched between two sheet silicate layers

B

C

Rhombohedron face D

FIGURE 9.22 (A) Mica cleaves easily parallel to the knife blade. (B) Relationship of mica to cleavage. Mica crystal structure is simplified in this diagram. Photo by C. C. Plummer

FIGURE 9.21 Geometric forms built by stacking cubes (A, B) and rhombohedrons (C, D). A and B are from a diagram published in 1801 by Haüy, a French mathematician. A and B show how cubes can be stacked for cubic and dodecahedral (12-sided) crystal forms. C and D show the relationship of stacked rhombohedrons to a “dog tooth” (scalenohedron) form and a rhombohedral face.

a structure having only a limited variety of planar forms. Likewise, stacking rhombohedrons in three dimensions limits you to other geometric forms (figure 9.21). Steno’s law was really a precursor of atomic theory, developed centuries later. Our present concept of crystallinity is that atoms are clustered into geometric forms—cubes, bricks, hexagons, and so on—and that a crystal is essentially an orderly, three-dimensional stacking of these tiny geometric forms. Halite, for example, may be regarded as a series of cubes stacked in three dimensions (see figure 9.8). Because of the cubic “building block,” its usual crystal form is a cube with crystal faces at 90° angles to each other.

Cleavage The internal order of a crystal may be expressed externally by crystal faces, or it may be indicated by the mineral’s tendency to split apart along certain preferred directions. Cleavage is the ability of a mineral to break, when struck or split, along preferred planar directions. A mineral tends to break along certain planes because the bonding between atoms is weaker there. In quartz, the bonds

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are equally strong in all directions; therefore, quartz has no cleavage. The micas, however, which are sheet silicates, are easily split apart into sheets (figure 9.22). If we could look at the arrangement of atoms in the crystalline structure of micas, we would see that the individual silicon-oxygen tetrahedra are strongly bonded to one another within each of the silicate sheets. The bonding between adjacent sheets, however, is very weak. Therefore, it is easy to split the mineral apart parallel to the plane of the sheets. Cleavage is one of the most useful diagnostic tools because it is identical for a given mineral from one sample to another. Cleavage is especially useful for identifying minerals when they are small grains in rocks. The wide variety of combinations of cleavage and quality of cleavage also increases the diagnostic value of this property. Mica has a single direction of cleavage, and its quality is perfect (figures 9.22A and 9.23A). Other minerals are characterized by one, two, or more cleavage directions; the quality can range from perfect to poor (poor cleavage is very hard for anyone but a well-trained mineralogist to detect). Three of the most common mineral groups—the feldspars, the amphiboles, and the pyroxenes—have two directions of cleavage (figure 9.23B and C). In feldspars, the two directions are at angles of about 90° to each other, and both directions are of very good quality. In pyroxenes, the two directions are also at about right angles, but the quality is only fair. In amphi-

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Only direction of cleavage

A

1

1st direction of cleavage

2 2nd direction B

C 1

1

3

3

2 2 D

E

FIGURE 9.23 Most common types of mineral cleavage. Straight lines and flat planes represent cleavage. (A) One direction of cleavage. Mica is an example. (B) Two directions of cleavage that intersect at 90° angles. Feldspar is an example. (C) Two directions of cleavage that do not intersect at 90° angles. Amphibole is an example. (D) Three directions of cleavage that intersect at 90° angles. Halite is an example. (E) Three directions of cleavage that do not intersect at 90° angles. Calcite is an example. Not shown are the two other possible types of cleavage—four directions (such as in diamond) and six directions (as in sphalerite).

boles (figure 9.24), the quality of the cleavage is very good and the two directions are at an angle of 56° (or 124° for the obtuse angle). Halite is an example of a mineral with three excellent cleavage directions, all at 90° to each other. This is called cubic cleavage (figure 9.23D). Halite’s cleavage tells us that the bonds are weak in the planes parallel to the cube faces shown in

figure 9.8. Take a close look at some grains of table salt. Notice that each grain is actually a tiny cube formed by breaking along halite’s cleavage planes during crushing. Calcite also has three cleavage directions, each excellent. But the angles between them are clearly not right angles. Calcite’s cleavage is known as rhombohedral cleavage (figures 9.23E and 9.25).

124° 56°

FIGURE 9.24

FIGURE 9.25

Amphibole cleavage as seen in a polarizing microscope. Photo by C. C. Plummer

Cleavage fragments of calcite. Photo by C. C. Plummer

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Some minerals have more than three directions of cleavage. Diamond has very good cleavage in four directions (ironically, the hardest natural substance on Earth can be easily shattered into small cleavage fragments). Sphalerite, the principal ore of zinc, has six cleavage directions. Recognizing cleavage and determining angular relationships between cleavage directions take some practice. Students new to mineral identification tend to ignore cleavage because it is not as immediately apparent to the eye as color. But determining cleavage is frequently the key to identifying a mineral, so the small amount of practice needed to develop this skill is worthwhile.

Fracture Fracture is the way a substance breaks where not controlled by cleavage. Minerals that have no cleavage commonly have an irregular fracture. Some minerals break along curved fracture surfaces known as conchoidal fractures (figure 9.26). These look like the inside of a clam shell. This type of fracture is commonly observed in quartz and garnet (but these minerals also show irregular fractures). Conchoidal fracture is particularly common in glass, including obsidian (volcanic glass). Minerals that have cleavage can fracture along directions other than that of the cleavage. The mica in figure 9.22A has irregular edges, which are fractures due to being torn perpendicular to the cleavage direction.

Liquid water has a specific gravity of 1. (Ice, being lighter, has a specific gravity of about 0.9.) Most of the common silicate minerals are about two and a half to three times as dense as equal volumes of water: quartz has a specific gravity of 2.65; the feldspars range from 2.56 to 2.76. Special scales are needed to determine specific gravity precisely. However, a person can easily distinguish by hand very dense minerals such as galena (a lead sulfide with a specific gravity of 7.5) from the much less dense silicate minerals. Gold, with a specific gravity of 19.3, is much denser than galena. Because of its high density, gold can be collected by “panning.” While the lighter clay and silt particles in the pan are sloshed out with the water, the gold lags behind in the bottom of the pan.

Special Properties

It is easy to tell that a brick is heavier than a loaf of bread just by hefting each of them. The brick has a higher density, weight per given volume, than the bread. Density is commonly expressed as specific gravity, the ratio of a mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of water.

Some properties apply to only one mineral or to only a few minerals. Smell is one. Some clay minerals have a characteristic “earthy” smell when they are moistened. A few minerals have a distinctive taste. If you lick halite, it tastes salty, because it is, of course, table salt. Plagioclase feldspar commonly exhibits striations— straight, parallel lines on the flat surfaces of one of the two cleavage directions (figure 9.27). The lines appear to be etched by a delicate scriber. In plagioclase, they are caused by a systematic change in the pattern of the crystalline structure. The tourmaline crystal in the opening photograph for this chapter also displays striations. The mineral magnetite (an iron oxide) owes its name to its characteristic physical property of being attracted to a magnet. Where large bodies of magnetite are found in the Earth’s crust, compass needles point toward the magnetite body rather than to magnetic north. Airplanes navigating by compass have become lost because of the influence of large magnetite bodies. Some other minerals are weakly magnetic; their magnetism can

FIGURE 9.26

FIGURE 9.27

Conchoidal fracture in quartz. Photo © Marli Miller

Plagioclase striations. Photo by C. C. Plummer

Specific Gravity

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WEB BOX 9.6

On Time with Quartz

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ver wonder why your watch has “quartz” printed on it? A small slice of quartz in the watch works to keep incredibly accurate time. This is because a small electric current applied to the quartz causes it to vibrate at a very precise rate (close to 100,000 vibrations per second). For the full story, go to: www.mhhe.com/carlson9e

be detected only by specialized magnetometers, similar to metal detectors in airports. Magnetism is important to modern civilization. We use magnets in computer hard drives, cell phones, and some speakers. In later chapters, you will see how magnetite in igneous rocks has preserved a record of Earth’s magnetic field through geologic time; this has been an important part of the verification of plate tectonic theory. Some bacteria create magnetite, and this has been used to support the hypothesis that life has existed on Mars (as described in NASA’s Mars micromagnet site, http://science.nasa.gov/ headlines/y2000/ast20dec_1.htm). Some researchers believe that migrating birds and animals have cells in their brains that contain small amounts of magnetite. They exploit the magnetic properties of magnetite to help them navigate during their migration. Quartz has the property of generating electricity when squeezed in a certain crystallographic direction. This property, called piezoelectricity, relates to its use in quartz watches (see box 9.6). A mineral has numerous other properties, including its melting point, electrical and heat conductivity, and so on. Most are not relevant to introductory geology. Two categories of properties that are important are optical properties and the effects of X rays on minerals. A clear crystal of calcite exhibits an unusual optical property. If you place transparent calcite over an image on paper, you will see two images (figure 9.28). This phenomenon is known as double refraction and is caused by light splitting into two components when it enters some crystalline materials. Each of the components is traveling through the mineral at different velocities. Most minerals possess double refraction, but it is usually slight and can be observed using polarizing filters, notably in polarizing microscopes. Polarizing microscopes are very useful to professional geologists and advanced students for identifying minerals and interpreting how rocks formed. Photomicrographs elsewhere in this book were taken through polarizing microscopes (for example, figures 9.15 and 11.5B). Explaining optical phenomena, such as this, is beyond the scope of this book but, if interested, you can go to the Molecular Expressions Microscopy Primer site at http://micro. magnet.fsu.edu/primer/virtual/virtualpolarized.html.

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FIGURE 9.28 Double refraction in calcite. Two images of the letters are seen through the transparent calcite crystal. Photo by C. C. Plummer

Specialized equipment is needed to determine some properties. Perhaps most important are the characteristic effects of minerals on X rays, which we can explain only briefly here. X rays entering a crystalline substance are deflected by planes of atoms within the crystal. The X rays leave the crystal at precise and measurable angles controlled by the orientation of the planes of atoms that make up the internal crystalline structure (figure 9.29). The pattern of X rays exiting can be recorded on photographic film or by various recording instruments. Each mineral has its own pattern of reflected X rays, which serves as an identifying “fingerprint.”

Chemical Tests One chemical reaction is routinely used for identifying minerals. The mineral calcite, as well as some other carbonate minerals (those containing CO3⫺2), reacts with a weak acid to produce carbon dioxide gas. In this test, a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid applied to the sample of calcite bubbles vigorously, indicating that CO2 gas is being formed. Normally, this is the only chemical test that geologists do during field research.

Photographic film

Crystal X-ray source X-ray beam

FIGURE 9.29 An X-ray beam passes through a crystal and is deflected by the rows of atoms into a pattern of beams. The dots exposed on the film are an orderly pattern used to identify the particular mineral.

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I N G R E AT E R D E P T H 9 . 7

Water and Ice — Molecules and Crystals Hydrogen

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arth is often called the blue planet because oceans cover 70% of its surface. Ice dominates our planet’s polar regions. Perhaps “Aqua” rather than “Earth” would be a more appropriate name for our planet. It is fortunate that water is so abundant because life would be impossible without it. In fact, we humans are made up mostly of water. The nature and behavior of water molecules helps explain why water is vital to life on Earth. In a water molecule, the two hydrogen atoms are tightly bonded to the oxygen atom. However, the shape of the molecule is asymmetrical, with the two hydrogen atoms on the same side of the atom (box figure 1). This means the molecule is polarized, with a slight excessive positive charge at the hydrogen side of the molecule and a slight excess negative charge at the opposite side. Because of the slight electrical attraction of water molecules, other substances are readily attracted to the molecules and dissolved or carried away by water. Water has been called the universal solvent. Dirt washes out of clothing; water, in blood, carries nutrients to our muscles and transports waste to our kidneys and out of our bodies. When water is in its liquid state, the molecules are moving about. Because of the polarity, molecules are slightly attracted to one another. For this reason, water molecules are closer together than molecules in most other liquids. However, in ice the water molecules are not as tightly packed together as in liquid water. When water freezes, positive ends of the water molecules are attracted to negative ends of adjacent water molecules (box figure 2). (This type of bonding is known as hydrogen bonding.) The result is an orderly, three-dimensional pattern that is hexagonal, as in a honeycomb (this explains the hexagonal shape of snowflakes). The openness of the honeycomblike, crystalline structure of ice contrasts with the more closely packed molecules in liquid water. This is the reason ice is less dense than liquid water. This is an unusual solid-liquid relationship. For most substances, the solid is denser than its liquid phase. The fact that ice is less dense than liquid water has profound implications. Ice floats rather than sinks in liquid water. Icebergs float in the ocean. Lakes freeze from the top down. Ice on a lake surface acts as an insulating layer that retards the freezing of underlying water. If ice sank, lakes would freeze much more readily and thaw much more slowly. Our climate would be very different if ice sank. The Arctic Ocean surface freezes during the winter but only at its surface. If the ice were to sink, more ocean water would be exposed to the cold atmosphere and would freeze and sink. Eventually, the entire Arctic Ocean would freeze and would not thaw during the summer. If this were the case, life, as we know it, probably would not exist.

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+ Oxygen

– BOX 9.7 ■ FIGURE 1 Water molecule.

BOX 9.7 ■ FIGURE 2 Hexagonal structure of ice. Small, black dots represent the attraction between hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms for adjacent water molecules.

When water freezes, it expands. A bottled beverage placed in a freezer breaks its container upon freezing. When water trapped in cracks in rock freezes, it will expand and will help break up the rock (as explained in the chapter on weathering).

Additional Resources Snow Crystal Research Nice images taken with an electron microscope. •

http://emu.arsusda.gov/snowsite/default.html

Snow Crystals Caltech’s site. More about ice and nice pictures of snow crystals. Click on “Ice Properties” under “Snowflake Physics” to see a model of the arrangement of oxygen and hydrogen atoms in the crystal structure of ice. •

www.its.caltech.edu/⬃atomic/snowcrystals/

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Chemical analyses of minerals and rocks are done in labs using a wide range of techniques. A chemical analysis can accurately tell us the amount of each element present in a mineral. However, chemical analysis alone cannot be used to conclusively identify a mineral. We also need to know about the mineral’s crystalline structure. As we have seen, diamond and graphite have an identical composition but very different crystalline structures.

THE MANY CONDITIONS OF MINERAL FORMATION Minerals form under an enormously wide variety of conditions— most purely geological; others biological in nature. Some form tens of kilometers beneath the surface; others right at the surface and virtually out of the atmosphere itself. The most common minerals are silicates, which incorporate the most abundant elements on Earth. Silicate minerals such as quartz, olivine, and the feldspars (plagioclase and potassium feldspar) crystallize primarily from molten rock (magma). They are precipitates—products of crystallizing liquid. Other precipitates include the carbonates calcite and aragonite, which grow in spring and cave waters and precipitate from ocean water. Some minerals precipitate due to evaporation (e.g., halite). The very thick salt deposits underlying central Europe and the

Summary Atoms are composed of protons (⫹), neutrons, and electrons (⫺). A given element always has the same number of protons. An atom in which the positive and negative electric charges do not balance is an ion. Ions or atoms bond together in very orderly, threedimensional structures that are crystalline. A mineral is a crystalline substance that is naturally occurring, has a specific chemical composition, and forms through geologic processes. Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. The two most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust are oxygen and silicon. Most minerals are silicates, having the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron as their basic building block. Minerals are usually identified by their physical properties. Cleavage is perhaps the most useful physical property for identification purposes. Other important physical properties are external crystal form, fracture, hardness, luster, color, streak, and specific gravity.

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southern Great Plains exist because of the evaporation of seas millions of years ago. Ice may be regarded as a very transient mineral at all but the coldest parts of Earth’s surface. (Ice is a major crust-forming mineral on planets of the outer solar system, where it cannot melt; box 9.7). Some minerals result from biological activity; for example, the building of coral reefs creates huge masses of calcite-rich limestone. Many organisms, including human beings, create magnetite within their skull cases. Bacteria also form huge amounts of sulfur by processing preexisting sulfate minerals. Most of our commercial supply of sulfur, in fact, comes from the mining of these biogenic deposits. Some minerals crystallize directly from volcanic gases around volcanic vents—a process termed sublimation. Examples include ordinary sulfur, ralstonite, and thenardite (used as a natural rat poison). Sublimates are much less common than precipitates, though on planets and moons with intense volcanic activity, like Venus and Io, they cover wide swaths of planetary surface in thick beds. We are able to understand the conditions of formation of most minerals with varying degrees of accuracy and precision using the tools of chemistry, especially with an understanding of thermodynamics and solutions. In fact, as implied at the beginning of this chapter, a good grasp of chemistry is a necessity for any advanced study of minerals.

Terms to Remember anion 222 atom 220 atomic mass 221 atomic mass number 220 atomic number 220 atomic weight 221 cation 222 chain silicate structure 225 cleavage 234 covalent bonding 222 crystal form 232 density 236 earthy luster 231 electron 220 element 220 ferromagnesian mineral 230 fracture 236 framework silicate structure 228 glassy (vitreous) luster 231 hardness 231 ion 222

ionic bonding 222 isolated silicate structure 225 isotope 220 luster 231 metallic bonding 223 metallic luster 231 mineral 218 Mohs’ hardness scale 232 neutron 220 nonmetallic luster 231 nucleus 220 polymorph 223 proton 220 sheet silicate structure 228 silica 224 silicates 224 silicon-oxygen tetrahedron 225 specific gravity 236 streak 230 striations 236

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Testing Your Knowledge

16. Which is not true of a single silicon-oxygen tetrahedron? a. The atoms of the tetrahedron are strongly bonded together. b. It has a net negative charge.

Use the following questions to prepare for exams based on this chapter. 1. Compare feldspar and quartz. a. How do they differ chemically? b. What type of silicate structure does each have? c. How would you distinguish between them on the basis of cleavage? 2. How do the crystal structures of pyroxenes and amphiboles differ from one another?

c. The formula is SiO4. d. It has four silicon atoms. 17. Which is not a type of silicate structure? a. isolated

b. single chain

c. double chain

d. sheet

e. framework

f. pentagonal

18. Which of the common minerals is not a silicate? a. quartz

b. calcite

3. How do the various feldspars differ from one another chemically?

c. pyroxene

d. feldspar

4. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:

e. biotite

silica/silicate silicon/silicon-oxygen tetrahedron 5. What is the distinction between cleavage and external crystal form? 6. How would you distinguish the following on the basis of physical properties? (You might refer to appendix A.) feldspar/quartz

calcite/feldspar

muscovite/feldspar

pyroxene/feldspar

7. Using triangles to represent tetrahedra, start with a single triangle (to represent isolated silicate structure) and, by drawing more triangles, build on the triangle to show a single-chain silicate structure. By adding more triangles, convert that to a double-chain structure. Turn your double-chain structure into a sheet silicate structure. 8. What major factor controls chemical activity between atoms? 9. What are the three most common elements (by number and approximate percentage) in the Earth’s crust?

19. On Mohs’ hardness scale, ordinary window glass has a hardness of about a. 2–3

b. 3–4

c. 5–6

d. 7–8

20. The ability of a mineral to break along preferred directions is called a. fracture

b. crystal form

c. hardness

d. cleavage

21. Striations are associated with a. quartz

b. mica

c. potassium feldspar

d. plagioclase

22. Glass is a. atoms randomly arranged

b. crystalline

c. ionically bonded

d. covalently bonded

23. Crystalline substances are always

10. What are the next five most common elements?

a. ionically bonded

b. minerals

11. A substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by ordinary chemical methods is a(n)

c. made of repeating patterns of atoms

d. made of glass

a. crystal

b. element

c. molecule

d. compound

12. The subatomic particle that contributes mass and a single positive electrical charge is the a. proton

b. neutron

c. electron 13. Atoms containing different numbers of neutrons but the same number of protons are called a. compounds

b. ions

c. elements

d. isotopes

14. Atoms with either a positive or negative charge are called a. compounds

b. ions

c. elements

d. isotopes

Expanding Your Knowledge 1. Why are nonsilicate minerals more common on the surface of the Earth than within the crust? 2. How does oxygen in the atmosphere differ from oxygen in rocks and minerals? 3. What happens to the atoms in water when it freezes? Is ice a mineral? Is a glacier a rock? 4. How would you expect the appearance of a rock high in iron and magnesium to differ from a rock with very little iron and magnesium?

15. The bonding between Cl and Na in halite is a. ionic

b. covalent

c. metallic

d. male

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Exploring Web Resources www.mhhe.com/carlson9e McGraw-Hill’s website for Physical Geology: Earth Revealed 9th edition features a wide variety of study aids, such as animations, quizzes, answers to the end-of-chapter multiple choice questions, additional readings and Google Earth exercises, Internet exercises, and much more. The URLs listed in this book are given as links in chapter web pages, making it easy to go to a website without typing in its URL. www.rockhounds.com/ Bob’s Rock Shop. Contains a great amount of information for mineral collectors. Scroll way down the page and find “crystallography and mineral crystal systems” for a more in-depth study of crystallography than presented in this book. http://webmineral.com/ Mineralogy Database. There are descriptions of close to 4,000 mineral species. The descriptions include mineral properties beyond the scope of an introductory geology course; however, there are links to other sites that include pictures of minerals. If you click on “mineral structures,” then pick a mineral you have heard about from the list (e.g., calcite). You can click on various options. “Spin” will rotate the crystal structure. If you click on one or more of the elements listed, it will show those atoms in the structure.

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www.mindat.org/ The online mineralogy resource. Another comprehensive source for mineral information. You can search for a mineral by name or by locality. www.theimage.com/ The Image. Photos of minerals and gems. Click on Mineral Gallery and choose a mineral to view photos and properties of that mineral. The Gemstone Gallery has photos of gem minerals. www.webelements.com/ Web elements periodic table. The periodic table of elements. You can click on an element to determine its properties. www.uky.edu/Projects/Chemcomics/ The comic book periodic table of elements. An entertaining site in which you click on an element and see examples of comic book stories about that element.

Animations This chapter includes the following animation on the book’s website at www.mhhe.com/carlson9e. 9.11–9.12 Silicate mineral structures

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10 Volcanism and Extrusive Rocks Relationships to Earth Systems Pyroclastic Debris and Lava Flows Living with Volcanoes Supernatural Beliefs The Growth of an Island Geothermal Energy Effect on Climate Volcanic Catastrophes Eruptive Violence and Physical Characteristics of Lava

Extrusive Rocks and Gases Scientific Investigation of Volcanism Gases

Extrusive Rocks Composition Extrusive Textures

Types of Volcanoes Shield Volcanoes Cinder Cones Composite Volcanoes Volcanic Domes

Lava Floods Submarine Eruptions Pillow Basalts

Summary

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hapters 10 and 11 cover igneous activity. Either may be read before the other. Chapter 11 emphasizes intrusive activity, but it also covers igneous rock classification and the origin of magmas, which are applicable both to volcanic and intrusive phenomena. Chapter 10 concentrates on volcanoes and related extrusive activity. Volcanic eruptions, while awesome natural spectacles (figure 10.1), also provide important information on the workings of Earth’s interior. Volcanic eruptions vary in nature and in degree of explosive violence. A strong correlation exists between the chemical composition of Volcanic lightning generated during the eruption of Chaiten volcano in Chile, May 2008. Photo © Carlos Gutierrez/UPI/Landov

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Volcanism and Extrusive Rocks

IGNEOUS ROCK

Sediment

Weathering and erosion

By studying the magma, gases, and rocks from eruptions, we can infer the chemical conditions as well as the temperatures and pressures within Earth’s crust or underlying mantle.

Relationships to Earth Systems

ism

Magma

Metamorph

Solidification

Lithification

SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Partial melting

METAMORPHIC ROCK Metamorphism

Rock in mantle

magma (or lava), its physical properties, and the violence of an eruption. The size and shape of volcanoes and lava flows and their pattern of distribution on Earth’s surface also correlate with the composition of their lavas. Our observations of volcanic activity fit nicely into platetectonic theory as described in chapter 11. Understanding volcanism also provides a background for theories relating to mountain building, the development and evolution of continental and oceanic crust (topics covered in later chapters). Landforms are created through volcanic activity and portions of Earth’s surface built up. Less commonly, as at Mount St. Helens, landforms are destroyed by violent eruptions (box 10.1).

PYROCLASTIC DEBRIS AND LAVA FLOWS The May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens (figure 10.1A and box 10.1) was a spectacular release of energy from the Earth’s interior. The plate-tectonic explanation is that North America is overriding a portion of the Pacific Ocean floor. Melting of previously solid mantle rock takes place at depth, just above the subducting plate. (This is described briefly in chapter 1 and more thoroughly in chapter 11.) Some of the magma (molten rock or liquid that is mostly silica) worked its way upward to the Earth’s surface to erupt. At Mount St. Helens, magma solidified quickly as it was blasted explosively by gases into the air, producing rock fragments known as pyroclasts (from the Greek pyro, “fire,” and clast, “broken”). Pyroclastic debris is also known as tephra. In Hawaii, lava (magma on Earth’s surface) extrudes out of fissures in the ground as lava flows (figure 10.1B). Pyroclastic

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The atmosphere was created by degassing magma during the time following Earth’s formation. Even now, gases and dust given off by major volcanic eruptions can profoundly alter worldwide climate. Condensation of the water vapor during the degassing produced the hydrosphere. Volcanic islands occasionally blow up, creating tsunamis, giant sea waves. In 1883, Krakatoa, a volcanic island in Indonesia, was destroyed by one of the most violent eruptions in recorded history. Although nobody lived on Krakatoa, over 36,000 people in the region drowned from the resulting, huge tsunami. (Krakatoa is not very far from where the much more devastating December 26, 2004 tsunami originated.) Eruptions also take place beneath glaciers. In Iceland in 1996, a large volcanic eruption beneath a glacier resulted in large-scale melting of the ice that burst out of the glacier as a flood, destroying three bridges and 10 kilometers of road. The effect of volcanic activity on the biosphere ranges from benign to catastrophic. Volcanic rock in Hawaii has reacted with water and atmospheric gases to form the soil that supports lush, tropical vegetation. Some violent eruptions in other parts of the world have destroyed virtually all living things (including humans) that happened to be in their paths. In the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption, forests were leveled by a huge lateral blast (box 10.1). Extended periods of major eruptions are believed to have contributed to or caused some of the mass extinctions that have taken place in Earth’s history. A mass extinction is a time in which a large number of plant and animal species are wiped out.

debris and rock formed by solidification of lava are collectively regarded as extrusive rock, surface rock resulting from volcanic activity. The most obvious landform created by volcanism is a volcano, a hill or mountain formed by the extrusion of lava or ejection of rock fragments from a vent. However, volcanoes are not the only volcanic landforms. Very fluid lava may flow out of the Earth and flood an area, solidifying into a nearly horizontal layer of extrusive rock. Successive layers of lava flows may accumulate, building a lava plateau.

LIVING WITH VOLCANOES Supernatural Beliefs Not surprisingly, myths and religions relating gods to volcanoes flourish in cultures that live with volcanoes. In Iceland, Loki, of Norse mythology, is regarded as imprisoned underground,

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E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 1 0 . 1

Mount St. Helens Blows Up

B

efore 1980, Mount St. Helens, in southern Washington, had not erupted since 1857. On March 27, 1980, ash and steam eruptions began and continued for the next six weeks. These were minor eruptions in which magma was not erupted. Rather, they were due to exploding gas blasting out the volcano’s previously formed rock. However, the steam and the pattern of earthquakes indicated magma was working its way upward beneath the volcano. After several weeks, the peak began swelling—like a balloon being inflated—indicating magma was now inside the volcano. The northern flank of the volcano bulged outward at a rate of 1.5 meters per day. Bulging continued until the surface of the northern slope was displaced outward over a hundred meters from its original position. The bulge was too steep to be stable, and the U.S. Geological Survey warned of another hazard—a mammoth landslide. On May 18, a monumental blast destroyed the summit and north flank of Mount St. Helens (see figure 10.1). Seconds after the eruption began, an area extending northward 10 kilometers was stripped of all vegetation and soil. Although the sequence of events was exceedingly rapid, it is now clear what happened (box figure 1). A fairly strong earthquake loosened the bulging north slope, triggering a landslide. The landslide, known as a debris avalanche, moved at speeds of over 160 kilometers per hour (100 mph). It was one of the largest landslides ever to occur, but it was eclipsed by the huge eruption that followed. The landslide stripped away the lid on the magma chamber, and because of the reduced pressure, the previously dissolved gases in the magma exploded (figure 10.1A). The violent froth of gas and magma blasted away the mountain’s north flank and roared outward at up to 1,000 kilometers per hour (600 mph). The huge lateral blast of hot gas and volcanic rock debris killed everything near the volcano and, beyond the 10-kilometer scorched zone, knocked down every tree in the forest. For the next 30 hours, exploding gases propelled frothing magma and volcanic ash vertically into the high atmosphere. The mushroom-shaped cloud of ash was blown northeastward by winds. A rain of ash went on for days, causing damage as far away as Montana. Volcanic mudflows caused enormous damage during and after the eruption. The mudflows resulted from water from melted snow and glacier ice mixing with volcanic debris to form a slurry having the consistency of wet cement. Mudflows flowed down river valleys, carrying away steel bridges and other structures (see chapter 13, notably figure 13.13). Damage was in the hundreds of millions of dollars, and 63 people were killed. The death toll might have been much worse had not scientists warned public officials about the potential hazards, causing them to evacuate the danger zone before the eruption. For comparison, 29,000 people were killed during an eruption of Mount Pelée (described later in this chapter), and 23,000 lives were lost in a 1985 volcanic mudflow in Colombia. Mount St. Helens is still active. Lava oozing into the crater is continuing to build domes (described later in this chapter). But there is no indication that the volcano will erupt violently in the near future. Other volcanoes in the Pacific Northwest, however, could

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Minor steam and ash eruptions Pre-March topography The bulge Magma A Steam and ash Landsliding B

Initial lateral explosions

C

Vertical eruption column D

BOX 10.1 ■ FIGURE 1 Sequence of events at Mount St. Helens, May 18, 1980. (A) Just before the eruption. (B) The landslide relieves the pressure on the underlying magma. (C) Magma blasts outward. (D) Full vertical eruption.

erupt and be disastrous to nearby cities. Seattle and Tacoma are close to Mount Rainier. Mount Hood is practically in Portland, Oregon’s suburbs. Vancouver, British Columbia, could be in danger if either Mount Garibaldi to the north or Mount Baker in Washington to the south erupt.

Additional Resource USGS Cascade Volcano Observatory—Mount St. Helens •

http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/MSH/framework.html

This website provides links to a wealth of information, maps, and photos of Mount St. Helens. Of note are labeled photos of the continuing dome growth that began in 2004 and “VolcanoCam”— a live view into the crater.

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A

B

FIGURE 10.1 Contrasting styles of volcanic eruptions. (A) Mount St. Helens, May 18, 1980. Looking north, we can see the last of the huge lateral explosion from the far side of the volcano. This was followed by vertical eruption of gases and pyroclasts from the top of the volcano. The vertical distance from the volcano flank at the edge of the picture and the rim of the crater is around 1,000 meters. (B) Lava flow in Hawaii, 1969. A lava fountain is at the source of lava cascading over a cliff. Photo A © Robert Krimmel/USGS/Cascades Volcano Observatory. Photo B by D. A. Swanson, U.S. Geological Survey

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blowing steam and lava up through fissures. Pacific Northwest Indians regarded the Cascade volcanoes as warrior gods who would sometimes throw red-hot boulders at each other. They also had a romantic side. Mount Hood and Mount Adams fought over Mount St. Helens, the youngest and prettiest of the volcano gods. In British Columbia, a lava flow killed about 2,000 members of the Nisga’a tribe around A.D. 1700. According to the Nisga’as, children were harassing salmon, including putting flaming sticks in a fish’s back and watching the smoking fish swim upstream. Disrespect of fish is a major taboo and was believed to have brought on the lava eruption. In Hawaii, Madame Pele, is regarded as a goddess who controls eruptions. According to legend, Pele and her sister tore up the ocean floor to produce the Hawaiian island chain. Today, many fervently believe that Pele dictates when and where an eruption will take place. In the 1970s, when Kilauea began erupting near a village, residents chartered an airplane and dropped flowers and a bottle of gin into the lava vent to appease Pele. Volcanism is also relevant to human affairs in very tangible ways. Its effects can be catastrophic or, surprisingly, beneficial.

The Growth of an Island Although occasionally a highway or village is overrun by outpourings of lava, the overall effects of volcanism have been favorable to humans in Hawaii. Lava flowing into the sea and solidifying adds real estate to the island of Hawaii. Kilauea Volcano has been erupting since 1983, spewing out an average of 325,000 cubic meters of lava a day. This is the equivalent of 40,000 dump truck-loads of material. In twenty years, 2.5 billion cubic meters of lava were produced—enough to build a highway that circles the world over five times. The down side is that during the 1980s and 1990s, 181 houses were destroyed by lava flows. Were it not for volcanic activity, Hawaii would not exist. The islands are the crests of a series of volcanoes that have been built up from the bottom of the Pacific Ocean over millions of years (the vertical distance from the summit of Mauna Loa Volcano to the ocean floor greatly exceeds the height above sea level of Mount Everest). When lava flows into the sea and solidifies, more land is added to the islands. Hawaii is, quite literally, growing. In addition to gaining more land, Hawaii benefits in other ways from its volcanoes. Weathered volcanic ash and lava produce excellent fertile soils (think pineapples and papayas). Moreover, Hawaii’s periodically erupting volcanoes (which are relatively safe to watch) are great spectacles that attract both tourists and scientists, benefiting the island’s economy (figure 10.1B).

Geothermal Energy In other areas of recent volcanic activity, underground heat generated by igneous activity is harnessed for human needs. Steam or superheated water trapped in layers of hot volcanic rock is

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tapped by drilling and then piped out of the ground to power turbines that generate electricity. The United States is the biggest producer of geothermal power, followed by the Philippines, Italy, and Mexico. Naturally heated geothermal fluids can also be tapped for space or domestic water heating or industrial use, as in paper manufacturing. (For more information, go to http:// geothermal.marin.org/, chapter 17 on ground water or chapter 21 on geologic resources.)

Effect on Climate Occasionally, a volcano will spew large amounts of fine, volcanic dust and gas into the high atmosphere. Winds can keep fine particles suspended over the Earth for years. The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines produced noticeably more colorful sunsets worldwide (see description in chapter 1). More significantly, it reduced solar radiation that penetrates the atmosphere. Measurements indicated that the worldwide average temperature dropped approximately one degree Celsius for a couple of years. While this may not seem like much, it was enough to temporarily offset the global warming trend of the past 100 years. The 1815 eruption of Tambora in Indonesia was the largest, single eruption in a millennium—40 cubic kilometers of material were blasted out of a volcanic island, leaving a 6-kilometer-wide depression. The following year, 1816, became known as “the year without summer.” In New England, snow in June was widespread and frosts throughout the summer ruined crops. Parts of Europe suffered famine because of the cold weather effects on agriculture.

Volcanic Catastrophes While the eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 was indeed awesome, its effects were not nearly as disastrous as a number of historical eruptions elsewhere in the world. For instance, the Roman city of Pompeii and at least four other towns near Naples in Italy were destroyed in A.D. 79 when Mount Vesuvius erupted (figure 10.2). Before the eruption, vineyards on the flanks of the apparently “dead” volcano extended to the summit. After it erupted without warning, Pompeii was buried under 5 to 8 meters of hot ash. Seventeen centuries later, the town was rediscovered. Excavation revealed molds of people suffocated by the ashfall, many with facial expressions of terror. This eruption was not the end of Vesuvius’s activity. The volcano was active almost continually from 1631 to 1944, with major twentiethcentury eruptions in 1906, 1929, and 1944. Naples is a major city and has expanded onto the lower flanks of Vesuvius. A new eruption could be a disaster. The island of Krakatoa in Indonesia, composed of three apparently inactive volcanoes, erupted in 1883 with the force of several hydrogen bombs. The eruption took place as an estimated 13 cubic kilometers of rock collapsed into a subsurface magma chamber. Six cubic kilometers of the displaced magma

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A

FIGURE 10.2 (A) Pompeii with Mount Vesuvius in the background. (B) Casts of bodies of people who died in Pompeii, buried by ash from the eruption of Vesuvius, A.D. 79. The casts were made by pouring plaster into voids in the ash left by the dead. Photo A by R. W. Decker; Photo B © Bettmann/Corbis

rose to the surface and flashed into gas and pyroclast eruptions. Only a third of the island remained above sea level. The rest, which formerly rose to 800 meters above sea level, became a 300-meter-deep, underwater depression. The huge explosion was heard 5,000 kilometers away. Over 34,000 people died as a result of the giant sea waves (tsunamis) generated by the explosion. A similar series of eruptions in prehistoric time (about 7,700 years ago) created the depression occupied by Crater Lake in Oregon (figure 10.3). Volcanic debris covering more than a million square kilometers in Oregon and neighboring states has been traced to those eruptions. The original volcano, named Mount Mazama (now regarded as a cluster of overlapping volcanoes), is estimated to have been about 2,000 meters higher than the present rim of Crater Lake. For more on Crater Lake and Mount Mazama, go to http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2002/ fs092-02/. The southern Cascade Mountains, where Crater Lake is located, have been built up by eruptions over the past 30 to 40 million years (figure 10.4; see also the geologic map, inside front cover). Only the youngest peaks (those built within the past 2 million years), such as Mount St. Helens, Mount Rainier, Mount Shasta, and Mount Hood, still stand out as cones. As Mount St. Helens has demonstrated, any of these could again erupt.

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B

The Record of Fatalities Figure 10.5 shows the results of research at the Smithsonian Institute and Macquarie University, Australia. Note the dramatic increase in fatalities during the recent centuries (figure 10.5A). This is not due to increasing volcanic activity but to increasing population and more people living near volcanoes. Figure 10.5B, which shows the cumulative number of deaths during the last seven centuries, also shows that most of the fatalities have been caused by seven major eruptions. Volcanoes can kill in a number of ways. Figure 10.5C indicates that pyroclastic flows account for the most fatalities. A pyroclastic flow, described in the Extrusive Rocks and Gases section of this chapter, is a mixture of hot gas and pyroclastic debris that rapidly flows down a volcano’s flanks. Famine and other indirect causes account for the next greatest number of fatalities. Widespread destruction of crops and farm animals can cause regional famine (as occurred with the eruption of Tambora in 1815). Note the large number of deaths attributable to famine were the result of relatively few events. Pyroclastic fall accounts for the largest number of deadly events; however, few people die in each event, so the total number of deaths is not great. Most of the deaths due to pyroclastic fall are caused by collapse of ash-covered roofs or by being hit by falling rock fragments.

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Magma chamber

A

Pyroclastic flows

Caldera collapses

Magma chamber B

Steam explosions

Wizard Island

Lake level

C

D

FIGURE 10.3 Crater Lake, Oregon. The lake is approximately 10 kilometers (6 miles) across. Its development and geologic history: (A) Cluster of overlapping volcanoes form. (B) Collapse into the partially emptied magma chamber is accompanied by violent eruptions. (C) Volcanic activity ceases, but steam explosions take place in the caldera. (D) Water fills the caldera to become Crater Lake, and minor renewed volcanism builds a cinder cone (Wizard Island). Photo © Greg Vaughn/Tom Stack & Associates; Illustration after C. Bacon, U.S. Geological Survey

249

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Mt. Garibaldi

1 in = 130 mi = 210 km

Vancouver

BRITISH COLUMBIA

S

Mt. Baker

N

Glacier Peak

I

Seattle

Columbia

A

Olympia

Mt. Rainier

T

Plateau Mt. Adams

U N

Mt.St.Helens

Mt. Hood

M

Valle

O

y

Portland

ette

Mt. Jefferson Three Sisters

E

lam

D

Wil

Eugene

WASHINGTON

A

Mt. Thielson

S

C

Crater Lake Mt. McLoughlin

A

Medford

C

OREGON Mt. Shasta Redding Lassen Peak Sacram ento Valley CALIFORNIA

NEVADA

FIGURE 10.4 The Cascade volcanoes. The named volcanoes are ones that have erupted in geologically recent time. Adapted from U.S. Geological Survey

FIGURE 10.5

Eruptive Violence and Physical Characteristics of Lava What determines the degree of violence associated with volcanic activity? Why can we state confidently that active volcanism in Hawaii poses only slight danger to humans but we expect violent explosions to occur in the Cascade Mountains? Whether eruptions are very explosive or relatively “quiet” is largely determined by two factors: (1) the amount of gas in the lava or magma and (2) the ease or difficulty with which the gas can escape to the atmosphere. The viscosity, or resistance to flow, of a lava determines how easily the gas escapes. The more viscous the lava and the greater the volume of gas trying to escape, the more violent the eruption. Later we will show how these factors not only determine the degree of violence of an eruption but also influence the shape and height of a volcano. The three factors that influence viscosity are (1) the silica (SiO2) content of the lava; (2) the temperature of the lava; and (3) gas dissolved in magma—the greater the dissolved gas content, the more fluid the lava. If the lava being extruded is considerably hotter than its solidification temperature, the lava is less viscous (more fluid) than when its temperature is near its solidification point. Temperatures at which lavas solidify range from about 700°C for silicic rocks to 1,200°C for mafic rocks.

Fatal eruptions

200 150 100

A

C

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

300,000

Ruiz 1985

250,000

Pelée 1902 Krakatau 1883

200,000 150,000

Unzen 1792 Tambora 1815 50,000 Kelut 1586 Laki 1783 0 0 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 B Year

50 0

Percent

Volcano fatalities. (A) Fatal volcano eruptions per centur y. (B) Cumulative volcano fatalities. Note the big jumps with the seven most deadly eruptions. These were eruptions that killed over 10,000 people and account for two-thirds of the total. (C) The causes of volcano fatalities. Reprinted with permission from “Volcano Fatalities” by T. Simkin, L. Siebert, and R. Blong, Science, v. 291: p. 255. Copyright © 2001 American Association for the Advancement of Science

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Volcanic mudflows (also called lahars) are discussed along with other mudflows in chapter 13. Tsunamis are described in chapter 7 along with seismically derived tsunamis. Lightning is a spectacular and sometimes deadly effect of volcanic eruptions. Volcanic lightning (see the image of Chaiten volcano in Chile at the beginning of this chapter) is generated by tiny particles of ash thrown out by the volcano. The ash is believed to cause friction that generates an electrical charge. During the eruption of Paricutin in Mexico that destroyed two villages, the only three fatalities were due to volcanic lightning.

Cumulative fatalities

250

14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th Century

100,000

Total fatalities (n = 274,603) Fatal events (n = 530)

Pyroclast Pyroclastic Mudflow fall flow/surge (direct)

Mudflow Indirect Tsunami (indirect) (famine, etc.)

Lava

Gas

Debris avalanche

Flood

Seismicity Lightning Unknown

Causes of fatalities

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I N G R E AT E R D E P T H 1 0 . 2

Volcanic Explosivity Index

T

o indicate how powerful volcanic eruptions are, scientists use the Volcanic Explosivity Index or VEI. The index is on a scale of 0 to 8 (box 10.2, table 1) and is based on a number of factors, including the volume of erupted pyroclastic material, the height of the eruption column, and how long the eruption lasts. Like the

Richter magnitude scale for earthquakes (discussed in chapter 7), the VEI is logarithmic, meaning that each interval on the scale represents a tenfold increase in the size of the eruption. An eruption of VEI 3 is ten times bigger than a 2 and one hundred times smaller than a 5 (box 10.2, figure 1).

BOX 10.2 ■ TABLE 1

The Volcanic Explosivity Index VEI

Description

Plume Height

Volume

Classification

How Often

Example

non-explosive

< 100 m

1,000s m3

Hawaiian

daily

Kilauea

1

gentle

100-1,000 m

10,000s m3

Haw/Strombolian

daily

Stromboli

2

explosive

1-5 km

1,000,000s m3

Strom/Vulcanian

weekly

Galeras, 1992

3

severe

3-15 km

10,000,000s m3

Vulcanian

yearly

Ruiz, 1985

4

cataclysmic

10-25 km

100,000,000s m3

Vulcanian/Plinian

10's of years

Galunggung, 1982

5

paroxysmal

>25 km

1 km3

Plinian

100's of years

St. Helens, 1980

6

colossal

>25 km

10s km3

Plinian/Ultra-Plinian

100's of years

Krakatau, 1883

7

super-colossal

>25 km

100s km3

Ultra-Plinian

1,000's of years

Tambora, 1815

8

mega-colossal

>25 km

1,000s km3

Ultra-Plinian

10,000's of years

Yellowstone, 2 Ma

Source: Volcano World (http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/eruption_scale.html)

Mount St. Helens May 18, 1980 (~1 km3)

EXAMPLES

Mono-Inyo Craters past 5,000 years VOLUME OF ERUPTED TEPHRA

VEI

0.0001 km3

Tambora, 1815 (>100 km3) Pinatubo, 1991 (~10 km3)

1.0 km3 0.001 km3

0 1 NonSmall explosive

0.01 km3

2

Long Valley Caldera 760,000 yrs ago (~600 km3)

10.0 km3

100.0 km3

0.1 km3

3

Moderate

4 Large

5

Yellowstone Caldera 600,000 yrs ago (~1,000 km3)

6

7

8

Very large

BOX 10.2 ■ FIGURE 1 VEI of past explosive eruptions. The volume for each eruption is given in parentheses. The relative increase in volume for each step on the scale is represented by the red circles. Note that the increase in volume is tenfold for each step. Source: USGS Volcano Hazards Program (http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/vei.php)

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Volcanic rocks, and the magma from which they formed, A have a silica content that ranges from 45% to 75% by weight. Silicic (or felsic) rocks are silica-rich (65% or more SiO2) rocks. Rhyolite is the most abundant silicic volcanic rock. Mafic rocks are silica-deficient rocks. Their silica content is close to 50%. Basalt is the most common mafic rock. Intermediate rocks have a chemical content between that of silicic and mafic rocks. The most common intermediate rock is andesite. Chapter 11 conDome tains a more complete description of the chemistry of igneous rocks and their relationship to Magma B the mineral content of rocks. Mafic lavas, which are relatively low in SiO2, tend to flow Side and top of dome collapse easily. Conversely, silicic lavas Dome are much more viscous and flow sluggishly. Mafic lava is around 10,000 times as viscous as water, Magma C whereas silicic magma is around 100 million times the viscosity of water. Lavas rich in silica are more viscous because even Gravitational before they have cooled enough collapse of part to allow crystallization of minof eruptive column FIGURE 10.6 erals, silicon-oxygen tetrahedra (A) Pyroclastic flow descending Mayon Volcano, Philippines (elevahave linked to form small, tion 2,460 meters), in 1984. Ways in which pyroclastic flows can framework structures in the lava. form: (B) Blasting out from under a plug capping a volcano. (C) ColOpen vent Although too few atoms are lapse of part of a steep-sided dome. (D) Gravitational collapse of an Magma D eruptive column. Photo by Chris Newhall, U.S. Geological Survey involved for the structures to be considered crystals, the total effect of these silicate structures is to make the liquid lava more viscous, much the way that flour or cornstarch thickens gravy. Gases Because silicic magmas are the most viscous, they are From active volcanoes we have learned that most of the gas associated with the most violent eruptions. Mafic magmas are released during eruptions is water vapor, which condenses as the least viscous and commonly erupt as lava flows (such as in steam. Other gases, such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, Hawaii). Eruptions associated with intermediate magma can be hydrogen sulfide (which smells like rotten eggs), and hydroviolent or can produce lava flows. The Cascade volcanoes are chloric acid, are given off in lesser amounts with the steam. predominantly composed of intermediate rock. Surface water introduced into a volcanic system can greatly increase the explosivity of an eruption, as exemplified by the devastation of the island of Krakatoa (described earlier). EXTRUSIVE ROCKS AND GASES

Scientific Investigation of Volcanism Volcanoes and lava flows, unlike many other geologic phenomena, can be observed directly, and samples can be collected without great difficulty (at least for the quiet, Hawaiian-type of eruption). We can measure the temperature of lava flows, collect samples of gases being given off, observe the lava solidifying into rock, and take newly formed rock samples into the laboratory for analysis and study. By comparing rocks observed solidifying from lava with similar ones from other areas of the world (and even with samples from the Moon) where volcanism is no longer active, we can infer the nature of volcanic activity that took place in the geologic past.

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Gases and Pyroclasts During an eruption, expanding, hot gases may propel pyroclasts high into the atmosphere as a column rising from a volcano. At high altitudes, the pyroclasts often spread out into a dark, mushroom cloud. The fine particles are transported by high atmosphere winds. Eventually, debris settles back to Earth under gravity’s influence as pyroclastic fall (often called ashfall or pumice fall) deposits. A pyroclastic flow is a mixture of gas and pyroclastic debris that is so dense that it hugs the ground as it flows rapidly into low areas (figure 10.6). Pyroclastic flows develop in several ways. Some are associated with volcanic domes (discussed later). An exploding froth of gas and magma can blast

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TABLE 10.1

253

Names for Extrusive Rocks

Names for finely crystalline rocks based on chemical or mineralogical composition

FIGURE 10.7

Rock Name

Chemical Composition

Rhyolite

Silicic

Andesite

Intermediate

Basalt

Mafic

The ruins of St. Pierre in 1902. Mount Pelée is in the clouds. Photo by Underwood & Underwood, courtesy of Library of Congress

out of the side of the dome or viscous plug capping a volcano. A steep-sided dome might collapse, allowing violent release of magma and its gases. For some volcanoes, a pyroclastic flow results from gravitational collapse of a column of gas and pyroclastic debris that was initially blasted vertically into the air. These turbulent masses can travel up to 200 kilometers per hour and are extremely dangerous. In 1991, a pyroclastic flow at Japan’s Mount Unzen killed 43 people, including three geologists and famous volcano photographers, Maurice and Katia Krafft. Far worse was the destruction of St. Pierre on the Caribbean island of Martinique (figure 10.7), where about 29,000 people were killed by a pyroclastic flow in 1902 (see box 10.4).

Description Light colored. Usually cream-colored, tan, or pink. Mostly finely crystalline white or pink feldspar and quartz. Moderately gray or green color. A little over half of rock is light- to mediumgray plagioclase feldspar, while the rest is ferromagnesian minerals (usually pyroxene or amphibole). Black or dark gray. The rock is made up mostly of ferromagnesian minerals (notably olivine and pyroxene) and calciumrich plagioclase feldspar.

Adjectives used to modify rock names Porphyritic

Vesicular

Some crystals (phenocrysts) are larger than 1 millimeter (usually considerably larger). Most grains are smaller than 1 millimeter. Or phenocrysts are enclosed in glass. Holes (vesicles) in rock due to gas trapped in solidifying lava.

Names for rocks based on texture

EXTRUSIVE ROCKS

Obsidian

Most extrusive rocks are named and identified on the basis of their composition and texture. But some names are based solely on texture (e.g., pumice). Table 10.1 summarizes the naming of extrusive igneous rocks.

Pumice Scoria

Composition

Tuff

The amount of silica in a lava largely controls not only the viscosity of lava and the violence of eruptions but also which particular rock is formed. Chapter 11 describes how igneous rocks are identified based on the minerals present and their relative abundance in the rock. (For photos and diagrams refer to figures 11.6 and 11.7 on pages 280 and 282.) Because extrusive

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Volcanic breccia

Volcanic glass that is usually silicic. Black or reddish with a conchoidal fracture. Frothy volcanic glass Vesicular basalt in which the volume of vesicles is greater than that of the solid rock. Consolidated, fine pyroclastic material Consolidated, pyroclastic debris that includes coarse material (lapilli, blocks, or bombs).

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igneous rocks are generally finely crystalline, a specialized microscope is usually needed for precise identification of the component minerals. In most cases, however, we can guess the probable mineral content by noting how dark or light in color an extrusive rock is. Most silicic rocks are light-colored because they contain abundant feldspar and quartz (both of which are silica-rich) and few dark minerals (which contain iron and magnesium and are silica-deficient). Mafic rocks, on the other hand, tend to be dark because of the abundance of ferromagnesian minerals. The common, fine-grained, crystalline extrusive rocks, described in table 10.1, are rhyolite, andesite, and basalt.

Extrusive Textures Texture refers to a rock’s appearance with respect to the size, shape, and arrangement of its grains or other constituents. Table 10.1 is a summary of extrusive rock textures. Some extrusive rocks (such as obsidian and pumice) are classified solely on the basis of their textures, but most are classified by composition and texture. Grain size is a rock’s most important textural characteristic. For the most part, extrusive rocks are fine-grained or else made of glass. A fine-grained rock is one in which most of the mineral grains are smaller than 1 millimeter. In most, the individual minerals are distinguishable only with a microscope. Obsidian (figure 10.8), which is volcanic glass that is usually silicic, is one of the few rocks that is not composed of minerals. A finegrained or glassy texture distinguishes extrusive rocks from most intrusive rocks. Two critical factors determine grain size during the solidification of igneous rocks: rate of cooling and viscosity. If lava

cools rapidly, the atoms have time to move only a short distance; they bond with nearby atoms, forming only small crystals. With extremely rapid or almost instantaneous cooling, individual atoms in the lava are “frozen” in place, forming glass rather than crystals. Grain size is controlled to a lesser extent by the viscosity of the lava. Atoms in a highly viscous lava cannot move as freely as those in a more fluid lava. Hence, a rock formed from viscous lava is more likely to be obsidian or of finer grains than one formed from more fluid lava. Most obsidian, when chemically analyzed, has a very high silica content and is silicic, the chemical equivalent of rhyolite. As we have discussed earlier, silicic magma is vastly more viscous than mafic magma. So why is obsidian black—a color we usually associate with mafic rocks, such as basalt? If you look at a very thin edge of obsidian, it is transparent. Obsidian is, indeed, a form of stained glass. The black, overall color is due to dispersion of extremely tiny magnetite crystals throughout the rock. Collectively they act like pigment in ink or paint and give an otherwise clear substance color. For red obsidian, the magnetite (Fe3O4) has been exposed to air and has been oxidized to hematite (Fe2O3), which is red or red-brown.

Porphyritic Textures Extrusive rock that does not have a uniformly fine-grained texture throughout is described as porphyritic. A porphyritic rock is one in which larger crystals are enclosed in a groundmass of much finer-grained minerals or obsidian. The larger crystals are termed phenocrysts. A porphyritic rock looks rather like raisin bread; the groundmass is the bread, the phenocrysts are the raisins. In the porphyritic andesite shown in figure 10.9A, phenocrysts of feldspar and ferromagnesian minerals are enclosed in a groundmass of crystals too fine-grained to distinguish with the naked eye but visible under a microscope (figure 10.9B). Porphyritic texture in extrusive rocks usually indicates two stages of solidification. Slow cooling takes place while the magma is underground. Minerals that form at higher temperatures crystallize and grow to form phenocrysts in the still partly fluid magma. If the entire mass is then erupted, the remaining liquid portion cools rapidly and forms the finegrained groundmass.

Textures Due to Trapped Gas

FIGURE 10.8 Obsidian. Photo by C. C. Plummer

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A magma deep underground is under high pressure, generally high enough to keep all its gases in a dissolved state. On eruption, the pressure is suddenly released and the gases come out of solution. This is analogous to what happens when a bottle of beer or soda is opened. Because the drink was bottled under pressure, the gas (carbon dioxide) is in solution. Uncapping the drink relieves the pressure, and the carbon dioxide separates from the liquid as gas bubbles. If you freeze the newly opened drink very quickly, you have a piece of ice with small, bubble-shaped holes. Similarly, when a lava solidifies while gas is bubbling through it, holes are trapped in the rock, creating a distinctive vesicular tex-

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FIGURE 10.10 Vesicular basalt. Photo © Parvinder Sethi

1 mm

amounts of pumice pyroclasts of all sizes. The seas near Krakatoa were covered with floating pumice pyroclasts, greatly hindering ship traffic. Baseball- and smaller-sized pumice fragments rained down on people during the eruption of Pinatubo. For some eruptions, most of the pumice fragments are around the size of a fingertip. These are, appropriately, called popcorn pumice. The ground east of the Sierra Nevada in California and Nevada near Mono Craters is layered with popcorn pumice from eruptions taking place during the past several thousand years.

Fragmental Textures B

FIGURE 10.9 Porphyritic andesite. A few large crystals (phenocrysts) are surrounded by a great number of fine grains. (A) Hand specimen. Grains in groundmass are too fine to see. (B) Photomicrograph (using polarized light) of the same rock. The black-and-white striped phenocrysts are plagioclase, and the green ones are ferromagnesian minerals. Photo A © Parvinder Sethi. Photo B by C. C. Plummer

ture. Vesicles are cavities in extrusive rock resulting from gas bubbles that were in lava, and the texture is called vesicular. A vesicular rock has the appearance of Swiss cheese (whose texture is caused by trapped carbon dioxide gas). Vesicular basalt is quite common (figure 10.10). Scoria, a highly vesicular basalt, actually contains more gas space than rock. In more viscous lavas, where the gas cannot escape as easily, the lava is churned into a froth (like the head in a glass of beer). When cooled quickly, it forms pumice (figure 10.11), a frothy glass with so much void space that it floats in water. Powdered pumice is used as an abrasive because it can scratch metal or glass. The great eruptions accompanying caldera-forming events (such as Krakatoa in 1883 and Pinatubo in 1991) create huge

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Pyroclasts, the fragments formed by volcanic explosion, can be almost any size. Their size-based names are: Dust Ash Cinder or lapilli Blocks and bombs

⬍1/8 millimeter 1/8–2 millimeters 2–64 millimeters ⬎64 millimeters

Cinder is often used as a less-restricted, general term for smaller pyroclasts. Lapilli is used for the 2–64 millimeter particles—a size range that extends from that of a grain of rice to a peach. When solid rock has been blasted apart by a volcanic explosion, the pyroclastic fragments are angular, with no rounded edges or corners and are called blocks. If lava is ejected into the air, a molten blob becomes streamlined during flight, solidifies, and falls to the ground as a bomb, a spindle or lens-shaped pyroclast (figure 10.12). When pyroclastic material (ash, bombs, etc.) accumulates and is cemented or otherwise consolidated, the new rock is called tuff or volcanic breccia, depending on the size of the fragments. A tuff (figure 10.13) is a rock composed of fine-grained pyroclastic particles (dust and ash). A volcanic breccia is a rock that includes larger pieces of volcanic rock (cinder, blocks, bombs).

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A

B

A

FIGURE 10.12 (A) Volcanic bombs. (B) Night-time eruption at Cerro Negro, a cinder cone in Nicaragua. Magma blobs that solidify in the air will land as bombs. If they are still molten upon landing, they will spatter. Photo A by C. C. Plummer; photo B by R. W. Decker

B

1mm

FIGURE 10.11 (A) A boulder of pumice can be easily carried because it is mostly air. (B) Seen close up, pumice is a froth of volcanic glass. Photo A by Diane Carlson; photo B by C. C. Plummer

FIGURE 10.13 Photomicrograph of a tuff. Fragments of different rocks, mainly obsidian and pumice, are angular and variously colored. Photo by C. C. Plummer

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TYPES OF VOLCANOES Volcanic material that is ejected from and deposited around a central vent produces the conical shape typical of volcanoes. The vent is the opening through which an eruption takes place. The crater of a volcano is a basinlike depression over a vent at the summit of the cone (figure 10.14). Material is not always ejected from the central vent. In a flank eruption, lava pours from a vent on the side of a volcano. A caldera is a volcanic depression much larger than the original crater, having a diameter of at least 1 kilometer. (The most famous caldera in the United States is misnamed “Crater Lake.”) A caldera can be created when a volcano’s summit is blown off by exploding gases or, as in the case of Crater Lake, when a volcano (or several volcanoes) collapses into a partially emptied magma chamber (see figure 10.3). The three major types of volcanoes (shield, cinder cone, and composite), discussed on pages 258–262 and compared in table 10.2, are markedly distinct from one another in size, shape, and, usually, composition. Note from the scales and the relative size diagram that the shield volcano shown is vastly bigger than the other two and the composite volcano is much

TABLE 10.2

~4° 100 km

Typically 1,000 to 4,000 meters

Crater and caldera in Kamchatka, Russia. In the foreground is the 200-meter-diameter crater on Karymsky Volcano. In the background is a lake-filled caldera. Photo by C. Dan Miller, U.S. Geological Survey

Comparison of the Three Types of Volcanoes

Profile of Volcano

10 km

FIGURE 10.14

Shield Volcano

~25° 1,000 – 4,000 m

Description

Composition

Shield Volcano Gentle slopes—between 2′ and 10′. The Hawaiian example rises 10 kilometers from the sea floor

Basalt. Layers of solidified lava flows

Composite Volcano Slopes less than 33′. Considerably larger than cinder cones

Layers of pyroclastic fragments and lava flows. Mostly andesite

Cinder Cone Steep slopes—33′. Smallest of the three types.

Pyroclastic fragments of any composition. Basalt is most common.

Composite Volcano

< 500 meters

~33° < 500 m

Cinder Cone

Mauna Loa

Kilauea

Shield volcano: Hawaii

Profiles drawn to same scale

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Composite volcano: Mt. Shasta, California

Cinder cone: Sunset Crater, Arizona

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bigger than the cinder cone. Although volcanic domes are not cones, they are associated with volcanoes and are also examined in this section.

Shield Volcanoes Shield volcanoes are broad, gently sloping volcanoes constructed of solidified lava flows. During eruptions, the lava spreads widely and thinly due to its low viscosity. Because the lava flows from a central vent, without building up much near the vent, the slopes are usually between 2° and 10° from the horizontal, producing a volcano in the shape of a flattened dome or “shield” (figure 10.15). The islands of Hawaii are essentially a series of shield volcanoes built upward from the ocean floor by intermittent eruptions over millions of years (figure 10.15B). Although spectacular to observe, the eruptions are relatively nonviolent because the lavas are fairly fluid (low viscosity). By implication, then, the shield volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands are composed of a series of layers of basalt. Hawaiian names have been given to two distinctive surfaces of basalt flows. Pahoehoe (pronounced pah-hoy-hoy) is characterized by a ropy or billowy surface (figure 10.16). Pahoehoe is formed by the rapid cooling and solidification of the surface of the lava flow, rather like the skin that forms on the top of a cup of hot chocolate. As the lava below the solidified surface continues to flow, the “skin” is dragged along and becomes folded and rumpled rather like what happens to the skin on the top of your hot chocolate when you tip the cup. Aa (pronounced ah-ah) is a flow that has a jagged, rubbly surface

(figure 10.17). It forms when basalt is cool enough to have partially solidified and moves slowly as a pasty mass. Its largely solidified front is shoved forward as a pile of rubble. A (usually) minor feature called a spatter cone, a small, steep-sided cone built from lava sputtering out of a vent (figure 10.18), will occasionally develop on a solidifying lava flow. When a small concentration of gas is trapped in a cooling lava flow, lava is belched out of a vent through the solidified surface of the flow. Falling lava plasters itself onto the developing cone and solidifies. The sides of a spatter cone can be very steep, but they are rarely over 10 meters high. An exception to this is Pu’u ‘O’o, the 250-meter-high, combined spatter and cinder cone on the eastern flank of Kilauea shield volcano. It is located at the vent for the ongoing (1983–onward) lava eruptions. Much of the lava in the ongoing Hawaiian eruptions flows underground in a lava tube, traveling about 7 kilometers from Pu’u ‘O’o to the sea. A lava tube is a tunnel-like conduit for lava that develops after most of a fluid, pahoehoe-type flow has solidified (figure 10.19). The tube’s roof and walls solidified along with the earlier, broader flow. The tube provides insulation so that the rapidly flowing lava loses little heat and remains fluid.

Cinder Cones A cinder cone (less commonly called a pyroclastic cone) is a volcano constructed of pyroclastic fragments ejected from a central vent (figure 10.20). Unlike a shield volcano, which is made up of lava flows, a cinder cone is formed exclusively of pyroclasts. In contrast to the gentle slopes of shield volcanoes, cinder cones commonly have slopes of about 30°. Most of the

New lava

Feeders

A

Layers of basalt

FIGURE 10.15 (A) Cutaway view of a shield volcano. (B) The top of Mauna Loa, a shield volcano in Hawaii, and its summit caldera, which is approximately 2 kilometers wide. The smaller depressions are pit craters. Photo © James L. Amos/Corbis

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FIGURE 10.16 Flow of lava solidifying to pahoehoe in Hawaii. Photo © Parvinder Sethi

FIGURE 10.18 A spatter cone (approximately 1 meter high) erupting in Hawaii. Photo by J. B. Judd, U.S. Geological Survey

FIGURE 10.17 An aa flow in Hawaii, 1983. Photo by J. D. Griggs, U.S. Geological Survey

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A

B

FIGURE 10.19 (A) Lava stream seen through a collapsed roof of a lava tube during a 1970 eruption of Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. Note the ledges within the tube, indicating different levels of flows. (B) Lava tube at Lava Beds National Monument, California. The narrow, dark shelf on either side of the tube marks the level of the lava stream, indicating where lava solidified against the walls of the tube. Photo A by J. B. Judd, U.S. Geological Survey; photo B by C. C. Plummer

ejected material lands near the vent during an eruption, building up the cone to a peak. The steepness of slopes of accumulating loose material is limited by gravity to about 33°. Cinder cones tend to be very much smaller than shield volcanoes. In fact, cinder cones are commonly found on the flanks and in the calderas of Hawaii’s shield volcanoes. Few cinder cones exceed a height of 500 meters. Cinder cones form by pyroclastic material accumulating around a vent. They form because of a buildup of gases and are independent of composition. Most cinder cones are associated with mafic or intermediate lava. Silicic cinder cones, which are made of fragments of pumice, are also known as pumice cones.

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FIGURE 10.20 Cerro Negro, a 230-meter-high cinder cone in Nicaragua, erupting. Figure 10.12B shows a night-time eruption of Cerro Negro. Photo by Mark Hurd Aerial Surveys Corp., courtesy of California Division of Mines and Geology

The life span of an active cinder cone tends to be short. The local concentration of gas is depleted rather quickly during the eruptive periods. Moreover, as landforms, cinder cones are temporary features in terms of geologic time. The unconsolidated pyroclasts are eroded relatively easily.

Composite Volcanoes A composite volcano (also called a stratovolcano) is one constructed of alternating layers of pyroclastic fragments and solidified lava flows (figure 10.21A). The slopes are intermediate in steepness compared with cinder cones and shield volcanoes. Pyroclastic layers build steep slopes as debris collects

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Crater New lava flow Older lava flows

A Layers of pyroclasts

FIGURE 10.21 (A) Cutaway view of a composite volcano. Light-colored layers are pyroclasts. (B) Mount Shasta, a composite volcano in California. Shastina on Mount Shasta’s flanks is a subsidiary cone, largely made of pyroclasts. Note the lava flow that originated on Shasta and extends beyond the volcano’s base. Photo by B. Amundson

B

near the vent, just as in cinder cones. However, subsequent lava flows partially flatten the profile of the cone as the downward flow builds up the height of the flanks more than the summit area. The solidified lava acts as a protective cover over the loose pyroclastic layers, making composite volcanoes less vulnerable to erosion than cinder cones. Composite volcanoes are built over long spans of time. Eruption is intermittent, with hundreds or thousands of years of inactivity separating a few years of intense activity. During the quiet intervals between eruptions, composite volcanoes may be eroded by running water, landslides, or glaciers. These surficial processes tend to alter the surface, shape, and form of the cone. But because of their long lives and relative resistance to erosion, composite cones can become very large. The extrusive material that builds composite cones is predominantly of intermediate composition, although there may be some silicic and mafic eruptions. Therefore, andesite is the rock most associated with composite volcanoes. If the lava is especially hot, the relatively low viscosity fluid flows easily from the crater down the slopes. On the other hand, if enough gas pressure exists, an explosion may litter the slopes with pyroclastic andesite, particularly if the lava has fully or partially solidified and clogged the volcano’s vent. The composition as well as eruptive history of individual volcanoes can vary considerably. For instance, Mount Rainier

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Geologist’s View

is composed of 90% lava flows and only 10% pyroclastic layers. Conversely, Mount St. Helens was built mostly from pyroclastic eruptions—reflecting a more violent history. As would be expected, the composition of the rocks formed during the 1980 eruptions of Mount St. Helens is somewhat higher in silica than average for Cascade volcanoes.

Distribution of Composite Volcanoes Nearly all the larger and better known volcanoes of the world are composite volcanoes. They tend to align along two major belts (figure 10.22). The circum-Pacific belt, or “Ring of Fire,” is the larger. The Cascade Range volcanoes described earlier make up a small segment of the circum-Pacific belt. Several composite volcanoes in Mexico rise higher than 5,000 meters, including Orizaba (third highest peak in North America) and Popocatépetl. Popocatépetl (affectionately called “Popo”), at 5,484 meters (17,991 feet) above sea level, is one of North America’s highest mountains. It is 55 kilometers east of Mexico City, one of the world’s most populous cities. Popo awakened from a

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Aleutian Islands

Vesuvius Etna Thera

Unzen Pinatubo

Heimaey Laki

Katmai

Karymsky

Cascade volcanoes

Fujiyama Mauna Loa

Mayon

Kilauea

Orizaba El Chichón Soufriére Hills Popocatepetl Pelée Cerro Negro Nevado del Ruiz

Krakatoa Tambora

Deception Island Erebus

FIGURE 10.22 Map of the world showing recently active major volcanoes. Red dots represent individual volcanoes. Yellow triangles represent volcanoes mentioned in this chapter.

long period of dormancy in 1994. In December 2000, Popo had its largest eruption in over 1,000 years and 50,000 people near its flanks were evacuated to shelters. On January 31, 2001, a pyroclastic flow descended the volcano to within 8 kilometers of a town. (To check on the current status of Popo as well as details of its past, go to www.cenapred.unam.mx/es/ Instrumentacion/InstVolcanica/MVolcan/. There is a wealth of information in Spanish and access to the latest report in English. To see the volcano—or a cloud bank—live, click on Imagen del volcán.) The circum-Pacific belt includes many volcanoes in Central America, western South America (including Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia), and Antarctica. Mount Erebus, in Antarctica, is the southernmost active volcano in the world (figure 10.23). The western portion of the Pacific belt includes volcanoes in New Zealand, Indonesia, the Philippines (with Pinatubo, whose 1991 caldera-forming eruption was the second-largest eruption of the twentieth century), and Japan. The beautifully symmetrical Fujiyama, in Japan, is probably the most frequently painted volcano in the world (figure 10.24), as well as its most climbed mountain. The northernmost part of the circum-Pacific belt includes active volcanoes in Russia (see figure 10.14) and on Alaska’s Aleutian Islands. The 1912 eruption of Katmai in Alaska was the world’s largest in the twentieth century. The second major volcanic belt is the Mediterranean belt, which includes Mount Vesuvius. An exceptionally violent eruption of Mount Thera, an island in the Mediterranean, may have destroyed an important site of early Greek civilization. (Some

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FIGURE 10.23 Mount Erebus, Antarctica, the southernmost active volcano in the world. The photo is taken on sea ice. The summit is 3,794 meters (12,444 feet) above sea level. One of its two summit craters contains a convecting lava lake. Photo by Philip R. Kyle

archaeologists consider Thera the original “lost continent” of Atlantis.) Mount Etna, on the island of Sicily, is Europe’s largest volcano and one of the world’s most active volcanoes. Its largest eruption in 300 years began in 1991 and lasted for 473 days. Some 250 million cubic meters of lava covered 7 square kilometers of land. A town was saved from the lava by heroic efforts that included building a dam to retain the lava (the lava quickly overtopped it), plugging some natural channels, and diverting the lava into other, newly constructed channels.

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FIGURE 10.24 Mount Fuji, woodblock print by Japanese artist Hiroshige (1797–1858).

Volcanic Domes Volcanic domes are steep-sided, dome- or spine-shaped masses of volcanic rock formed from viscous lava that solidifies in or immediately above a volcanic vent. A volcanic dome grew within the crater of Mount St. Helens after the climactic eruption of May 1980 (figure 10.25). This was expected because of the high viscosity of the lava from the eruptions. In 1983 alone, the dome increased its elevation by 200 meters. After years of quiescence, dome growth resumed in October 2004. At that time, lava extrusion shifted and a new dome began growing

adjacent to the original dome (figure 10.25). In 2005, 70 million cubic meters of lava were extruded to build seven domes in the crater. Lava extruded at a rate of one large pickup truck load per second. For an update of current dome growth go to http:// vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/MSH/Eruption04/ framework. html. Look for links to a time-lapse movie taken in July 2006 of a growing spine that was pushed out of a vent like a piston moving upward in an engine. Most of the viscous lavas that form volcanic domes are high in silica. Commonly, they solidify as obsidian that is the chemical equivalent of rhyolite (or, less commonly, andesite). If minerals do crystallize, the rock is rhyolite, if from a silicic magma, or andesite, if from an intermediate magma. Because the thick, pasty lava that squeezes from a vent is too viscous to flow, it builds up a steep-sided dome or spine (figure 10.26). Some volcanic domes act like champagne corks, keeping gases from escaping. If the plug is removed or broken, the gas and magma escape suddenly and violently, usually as a pyroclastic flow (figure 10.6). Some of the most destructive volcanic explosions known have been associated with volcanic domes (see box 10.4).

LAVA FLOODS Not all extrusive rocks are associated with volcanoes. Lava that is very nonviscous and flows almost as easily as water does not build a cone around a vent. Rather, it flows out of long fissures that extend through Earth’s crust. Such lava is, of course, mafic (low in silica).

Crater rim

Steam and ash

d on Layers of volcanic rock expose

crater wall

Steam

Dome growth in Mt. St. Helens crater after the 1980 cataclysmic eruption that blasted away the top and front of the mountain. The photo, taken November 4, 2004, shows the glow of lava that is part of the dome building event that began a month earlier. The snow-covered “old” dome in the foreground has been volcanically inactive since 1991. That dome has a height of 267 meters (876 feet) above the crater floor. Photo by Elliot Endo, U.S. Geological Survey

Old dome

Cr at er

Magma

FIGURE 10.25

rim

New (2004) dome

Geologist’s View

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P L A N E TA R Y G E O L O G Y 1 0 . 3

Extraterrestrial Volcanic Activity

V

olcanic activity has been a common geologic process operating on the Moon and several other bodies in the solar system. Approximately one-sixth of the Moon’s surface consists of nearly circular, dark-colored, smooth, relatively flat lava plains. The lava plains, found mostly on the near side of the Moon, are called maria (singular, mare; literally, “seas”). They are believed to be huge meteorite impact craters that were flooded with basaltic lava during the Moon’s early history. There are also a few extinct shield volcanoes on the Moon. Elongate trenches or cracklike valleys called rilles are found mainly in the smoother portions of the lunar maria. They range in length from a few kilometers to hundreds of kilometers. Some are arc-shaped or crooked and are regarded as drained basaltic lava channels. Mercury, the innermost planet, also has areas of smooth plains, suspected to be volcanic in origin. Radar images of Venus show a surface that is young and probably still volcanically active. More than three-fourths of that surface is covered by continuous plains formed by enormous floods of lava. Close examination of these plains reveals extensive networks of lava channels and individual lava flows thousands of kilometers long. Large shield volcanoes, some in chains along a great fault, have been identified on Venus, and molten lava lakes may exist. In other places, thick lavas have oozed out to form kilometer-high, pancake-shaped domes. Radar studies have shown that some of these domes are composed of a glassy substance mixed with bubbles of trapped gas. Fan-shaped deposits adjacent to some volcanoes may be pyroclastic debris. Several of Venus’s volcanoes emit large amounts of sulfur gases, causing the almost continuous lightning that has been observed by spacecraft. It is strongly suspected that the planet is still volcanically active. Nearly half of the planet Mars may be covered with volcanic material. There are areas of extensive lava flows similar to the lunar maria and a number of volcanoes, some with associated lava flows. Mars has at least nineteen large shield volcanoes, probably composed of basalt. The largest one, Olympus Mons (box figure 1), is three times the height of Mount Everest and wider than Arizona. Its caldera is more than 90 kilometers across. Hundreds of volcanoes have been discovered on Jupiter’s moon Io (box figure 2), and some of those have erupted for periods of at least four months. Material rich in sulfur compounds is thrown at least 500 kilometers into space at speeds of up to 3,200 kilometers per hour. This material often forms umbrella-shaped clouds as it spreads out and falls back to the surface. Lakes of very hot silicate lava, perhaps mafic or ultramafic, are common. More than 100 calderas larger than 25 kilometers across have been observed, including one that vents sulfur gases. The energy source for Io’s volcanoes may be the gravitational pulls of Jupiter and two of its

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BOX 10.3 ■ FIGURE 1 Perspective view of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and tallest mountain in the solar system. This Martian volcano is over 650 km wide and 24 km high. Note the outline of the state of Arizona for size comparison. Photo by NASA/MOLA Science Team

BOX 10.3 ■ FIGURE 2 Two volcanic plumes on Jupiter’s moon Io. The plume on left horizon (and upper insert) is 140 kilometers high; the one in the center (and lower insert) is 75 kilometers high. For details go to photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00703. Photo by JPL/NASA

other larger satellites, causing Io to heat up much as a piece of wire will do if it is flexed continuously. Neptune’s moon Triton is the third object in the solar system that has active volcanoes. There, “ice volcanoes” erupt what is probably nitrogen frost.

Additional Resource The Nine Planets •

www.nineplanets.org/

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www.mhhe.com/carlson9e A Viscous lava wells up into a crater.

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B A dome grows as more magma is extruded. The outer part is solid and breaks as the growing dome expands.

C If magma continues to be fed into the steep-sided dome, it may rise above the rim of the crater.

D

FIGURE 10.26 A volcanic dome forming in the crater of a cinder cone (A, B, C). (D) Mono craters, eastern California, is a line of craters with lava domes. The dome in the crater in the foreground has not grown above the level of the crater’s rim (like B). Some in the background have overtopped their rims. You can also see some short and steep lava flows, reflecting the very viscous silicic lava that erupted. The photo of pumice in figure 10.11 was taken on the flanks of the cinder cone in the foreground. A two-lane highway provides a scale for the photo. The Sierra Nevada range is on the skyline. Photo by C. Dan Miller, U.S. Geologic Survey

Plateau basalts were produced during the geologic past by vast outpourings of lava from fissures. The Columbia Plateau area of Washington, Idaho, and Oregon (see inside front cover), for example, is constructed of layer upon layer of basalt (figure 10.27), in places as thick as 3,000 meters. The area covered is over 400,000 square kilometers. Each individual flood of lava added a layer usually between 15 and 100 meters thick and sometimes thousands of square kilometers in extent. The outpourings of lava that built the Columbia Plateau took place from 17.5 to 6 million years ago but 95% erupted between 17 and 15.5 million years ago. Similar huge, lava plateau-building events have not occurred since then. (The hypothesis that these are due to the arrival of huge mantle plumes beneath the lithosphere is described in chapter 11.) Even relatively small basaltic floods not associated with shield volcanoes are a rarity (see box 10.5). Even larger basalt plateaus are found in India and Siberia. Their times of eruption coincide with the two largest mass extinctions of life on Earth. The one in Siberia occurred about

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250 million years ago, around the time of the largest mass extinction, when over 90% of living species were wiped out. The eruptions are a prime suspect because of the enormous amount of gases that must have been emitted. These would have changed the atmosphere and worldwide climate. The Indian eruptions occurred about 65 million years ago and coincided with the mass extinction in which the last of the dinosaurs died. Although this mass extinction is generally blamed on a large asteroid hitting Earth (see chapter 8), the intense volcanic activity may have been a contributing factor. Basalt layers give the landscape a striking appearance in most places where they are exposed. Instead of stacked-up slabs or tablets of solid, unbroken rock, the individual layers may appear to be formed of parallel, vertical columns, mostly sixsided. This characteristic of basalt is called columnar structure or columnar jointing (figure 10.28). The columns can be explained by the way in which basalt contracts as it cools after solidifying. Basalt solidifies completely at temperatures below

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WASHINGTON

Dry Falls

Basalt flows

OREGON

IDAHO

FIGURE 10.27 Basalt layers in the Columbia Plateau, Dry Falls State Park, Washington. Photo by Cynthia Shaw

Centers of contraction

FIGURE 10.28 Columnar jointing at Devil’s Postpile, California. Insert shows top view with centers of contraction drawn in. A rock hammer is used for scale. (Scratches were caused by glacial erosion as described in chapter 19.) Photos by C. C. Plummer

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E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 1 0 . 4

A Tale of Two Volcanoes—Lives Lost and Lives Saved in the Caribbean

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ontserrat and Martinique are two of the tropical islands that are part of a volcanic island arc (box figure 1). During the twentieth century, both islands had major eruptions that destroyed towns. Violent and deadly pyroclastic flows associated with growth of volcanic domes caused most of the destruction. For one island, the death toll was huge, and for the other, it was minimal. In 1902, the port city of St. Pierre on the island of Martinique was destroyed after a period of dome growth and pyroclastic flows on Mount Pelée (no relationship to Pele, Hawaii’s goddess of volcanoes). A series of pyroclastic flows broke out of a volcanic dome and flowed down the sides of the volcano. Searingly hot pyroclastic flows can travel at up to 200 kilometers per hour and will destroy any living things in their paths. After the pyroclastic flows began, the residents of St. Pierre became fearful and many wanted to leave the island. The authorities claimed there was no danger and prevented evacuation. There was an election coming up, and the gov-

Bahama Islands

Florida Keys

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Turks and Caicos Islands Dominican Republic

Cuba Jamaica Haiti MONTSERRAT

St. Peter’s Old Road Estate

Curacao ,

Cork Hill Plymouth

3 Kilometers

Bramble Airport

Anguilla St. Martin Virgin Islands

Barbuda

Puerto Rico Montserrat Guadeloupe

CARIBBEAN SEA St. John’s

ernor felt that most of his supporters lived in the city. He did not want to lose their votes, but neither the governor nor any of the city’s residents would ever vote. The climax came on the morning of May 8, when great fiery, exploding clouds descended like an avalanche down the mountainside, raced down a stream valley, through the port city and onto the harbor. St. Pierre and the ships anchored in the harbor were incinerated (see figure 10.7). Temperatures within the pyroclastic flow were estimated at 700°C. Some of the dead had faces that appeared unaffected by the incinerating storm. However, the backs of their skulls were blasted open by their boiling brains. About 29,000 people were burned to death or suffocated (of the two survivors in St. Pierre, one was a condemned prisoner in a poorly ventilated dungeon). Ninety-three years later, in July 1995, small steam-ash eruptions began at Soufriére Hills volcano on the neighboring island of Montserrat. As a major eruption looked increasingly likely, teams of

Bonaire

Martinique St. Vincent Grenada Isla de Margarita

St. Kitts Nevis Dominica St. Lucia Barbados Tobago Trinidad

Harris Long Ground Soufriére Hills

St. Patrick’s

BOX 10.4 ■ FIGURE 1 Eruption of Soufriére Hills volcano on Montserrat, August 4, 1997. An ash cloud billows upward above a ground-hugging pyroclastic flow. Map of the West Indies showing location of Montserrat, Martinique, and Soufriére Hills volcano. Photo by AP/Kevin West

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volcanologists from France, the United Kingdom, the United States (including members of the U.S. Geological Survey’s Volcano Disaster Assistance Team that had successfully predicted the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, as described in chapter 1), and elsewhere flew in to study the volcano and help assess the hazards. An unprecedented array of modern instruments (including seismographs, tiltmeters, and gas analyzers) were deployed around the volcano. In November 1995, viscous, andesitic lava built a dome over the vent. Pyroclastic flows began when the dome collapsed in March 1996. Pyroclastic flows continued with more dome building and collapsing. By 1997, nearly all of the people in the southern part of the island were evacuated, following advice from the scientific teams. In June 1997, large eruptions took place and pyroclastic flows destroyed the evacuated capital city of Plymouth. In contrast to the tragedy of St. Pierre, only nineteen people were killed in the region. In August 1997, major eruptions resumed. This time, the northern part of the island, previously considered safe, was faced with

pyroclastic flows (box figure 1), and more people were evacuated from the island. Activity continued, at least into the mid-2000s, but with decreasing intensity. In May 2004, a volcanic mudflow went through the already uninhabitable town of Plymouth. Up to 6 meters of debris were deposited, partially burying buildings still left in the town.

about 1,200°C. The hot layer of rock then continues to cool to temperatures normal for the Earth’s surface. Like most solids, basalt contracts as it cools. The layer of basalt is easily able to accommodate the shrinkage in the narrow vertical dimension; but the cooling rock cannot “pull in” its edges, which may be many kilometers away. Instead, the rock contracts toward evenly spaced centers of contraction. Tension cracks develop halfway between neighboring centers. A hexagonal fracture pattern is the most efficient way in which a set of contraction centers can share fractures. Although most columns are six-sided, some are five- or seven-sided.

crust underlying the oceans. In a few places—Iceland, for example—volcanic islands rise above the otherwise submerged system (see box 10.6).

Additional Resources Mount Pelée, West Indies (Volcano World site) This site contains some excellent photos from the 1902 eruptions. The second page has photos of the famous spine that grew in Mount Pelée after the tragic eruption. •

www.volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/img_mt_pelee.html

Montserrat Volcano Observatory Includes up-to-date reports on volcanic activity. •

www.mvo.ms

Pillow Basalts Figure 10.29 shows pillow structure—rocks, generally basalt, occurring as pillow-shaped, rounded masses closely fitted together. From observations of submarine eruptions by

SUBMARINE ERUPTIONS Basalt plateaus have their counterparts in the oceans. These were unknown until they were discovered through deep-ocean drilling a couple of decades ago. The largest of these oceanic plateaus is the Ontang Java Plateau in the western Pacific ocean. This plateau is larger in area than Alaska. A thick sequence of sedimentary rocks covers the huge volume of basalt that formed the plateau around 90 million years ago. Oceanic plateaus are only a small part of the sea floor. Most of the formation of the sea floor has involved eruptions along mid-oceanic ridges. The eruptions almost always consist of mafic lavas that create basalt. As described in chapter 11, basaltic rock, thought to have been formed from lava erupting along mid-oceanic ridges or solidifying underground beneath the ridges, makes up virtually the entire

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FIGURE 10.29 Pillow basalt in Iceland. These pillows are unusual in that the basalt erupted into water beneath a glacier. Photo by R. W. Decker

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EARTH SYSTEMS 10.5

The Largest Humanly Observed Fissure Eruption and Collateral Deadly Gases

H

uge eruptions from fissures, such as those of the Columbia Plateau, have not occurred in historical time. The largest fissure eruption and basaltic flood documented by humans took place in Iceland in 1783. Eruptions began when 130 cinder cones built up along a 25-kilometer-long fissure when rising magma encountered ground water. Eventually pyroclastic activity yielded to Hawaiiantype lava flows creating the Laki flow. Fluid basalt flowed out of the fissure for several months. Over that time some 12 cubic kilometers of basalt lava covered 565 square kilometers of land. Along with the lava, a tremendous amount of gases were released. These had a devastating effect on Iceland’s biosphere. A blue haze of gas, called a “dry fog,” or “vog” hung over Iceland and parts of northern Europe for months. Fluorine in the gas contaminated grass and over 200,000 sheep, cattle, and horses died of fluoridosis. The resulting famine was made worse because fisher-

divers, we know how the pillow structure is produced: Fluid, pahoehoe-type lava flows into water. Elongate blobs of lava break out of a thin skin of solid basalt over the top of a flow that is submerged in water. Each blob is squeezed out like toothpaste, and its surface is chilled to rock within seconds. A new blob forms as more lava inside breaks out. Each new pillow settles down on the pile, with little space left in between. Some pillow basalt forms in lakes and rivers or where lava flows from land into the sea (as in Hawaii). However, most pillow basalt forms at mid-oceanic ridge crests (figure 10.30). According to plate-tectonic theory, basalt magma flows up the fracture that develops at a divergent boundary (explained in chapter 11). The magma that reaches the sea floor solidifies as pillow basalt. The rest solidifies in the fracture as a dike. Pillow basalt that is overlying a series of dikes is sometimes found in mountain ranges. These probably formed during seafloor spreading in the distant past followed, much later, by uplift.

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men couldn’t get out to sea due to the “vog.” Some 10,000 Icelanders died because of the famine. That represents one-fifth of Iceland’s population at that time. In Europe the “vog” was more of an irritant to people than a danger. The winter of 1783–84 was exceptionally severe. Ben Franklin, who was the American envoy to France at the time became the first person to link volcanic eruptions to climate changes. He suggested that the gases and dust from the eruptions may have blocked enough sunshine to result in the severe cold.

Additional Resource The Laki and Grimsvotn Eruptions of 1883–1885 (Volcano World site) •

http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/europe_west_asia/laki. html

FIGURE 10.30 Pillow basalt on a mid-oceanic ridge. Photo taken from a submersible vessel. Courtesy of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

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WEB BOX 10.6

Fighting a Volcano in Iceland—and Winning

I

n 1973, a volcano began erupting on a small island in Iceland (box figure 1). Go to the book’s website www. mhhe.com/carlson9e to learn about:

how a town was almost buried by ash;

what volunteers did to keep roofs from collapsing under heavy ash deposits;

a lava flow that threatened to seal off the harbor and end the town’s thriving fishing industry;

an unprecedented effort to halt the lava flow;

the cleanup and rebuilding of the town;

how the residents get heat and hot water from the lava flow.

BOX 10.6 ■ FIGURE 1 Lava fountaining at a cinder cone behind the town on Heimaey. The glow behind the town in the left part of the photo is the lava flow advancing to the harbor. Photo © Solarfilma

Summary Lava is molten rock that reaches the Earth’s surface, having been formed as magma from rock within the Earth’s crust or from the uppermost part of the mantle. Volcanic hazards include pyroclastic flow, pyroclastic fall, and volcanic mudflow. More people have been killed by pyroclastic flows and, indirectly, by famine than by other volcanic hazards. Lava contains 45% to 75% silica (SiO2). The more silica, the more viscous the lava is. Viscosity is also influenced by the temperature and gas content of the lava. Viscous lavas are associated with more violent eruptions than are fluid lavas. Volcanic domes form from the extrusion of very viscous lavas. Collapse of volcanoes into magma chambers forms calderas and results in the most explosive eruptions in which huge amounts of pyroclasts and gas are blasted into the atmosphere. A mafic lava, relatively low in silica, crystallizes into basalt, the most abundant extrusive igneous rock. Basalt, which is dark in color, is composed of minerals that are relatively high in iron, magnesium, and calcium. Rhyolite, a light-colored rock, forms from silicic lavas that are high in silica but contain little iron, magnesium, or calcium. Because potassium and sodium are important elements in rhyolite, its constituent minerals are mostly potassium- and sodiumrich feldspars and quartz.

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A lava with a composition between mafic and silicic crystallizes to andesite, a moderately dark rock. Andesite contains about equal amounts of ferromagnesian minerals and sodiumand calcium-rich feldspars. Extrusive rocks are characteristically fine-grained. Porphyritic rock contains some larger crystals in an otherwise finergrained rock. Rocks that solidified too rapidly for crystals to develop form a natural glass called obsidian. Gas trapped in rock forms vesicles. Pyroclasts are the result of volcanic explosions. Tuff is volcanic ash that has consolidated into a rock. If large pyroclastic fragments have reconsolidated, the rock is a volcanic breccia. A cinder cone is composed of loose pyroclastic material that forms steep slopes as it falls from the air back to near the crater. Cinder cones are not as large as the other two major types of cones. A shield volcano is built up by successive eruptions of mafic lava. Its slopes are gentle, but its volume is generally large. Composite cones are made of alternating layers of pyroclastic material and solidified lava flows. They are not as steep as cinder cones but steeper than shield volcanoes. Young composite volcanoes, predominantly composed of andesite, are aligned along the circum-Pacific belt and, less extensively, in the Mediterranean belt. Plateau basalts are thick sequences of lava floods. Columnar jointing develops in solidified basalt flows. Basalt that erupts underwater forms a pillow structure. Pillow basalts commonly form along the crests of mid-oceanic ridges.

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Terms to Remember block 255 bomb 255 caldera 257 cinder cone 258 circum-Pacific belt 261 columnar structure (columnar jointing) 265 composite volcano (stratovolcano) 260 crater 257 flank eruption 257 lava 244 magma 244 Mediterranean belt 262 obsidian 254 phenocryst 254

pillow structure (pillow basalts) 268 plateau basalts 265 pumice 255 pyroclast 244 pyroclastic flow 252 scoria 255 shield volcano 258 tuff 255 vent 257 vesicle 255 viscosity 250 volcanic breccia 255 volcanic dome 263 volcanism 244 volcano 244

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Testing Your Knowledge Use the following questions to prepare for exams based on this chapter. 1. Compare the hazards of lava flows to those of pyroclastic flows. 2. What roles do gases play in volcanism? 3. What do pillow structures indicate about the environment of volcanism? 4. Name the minerals and the approximate percentage of each that you would expect to be present in each of the following rocks: andesite, rhyolite, basalt. 5. What property (or characteristic) of obsidian makes it an exception to the usual geologic definition of rock? 6. What determines the viscosity of a lava? 7. What determines whether a series of volcanic eruptions builds a shield volcano, a composite volcano, or a cinder cone? Describe each type of volcanic cone. 8. Explain how a vesicular porphyritic andesite might have formed. 9. Why are extrusive igneous rocks fine-grained?

Terms Covered in Chapter 10 as well as Chapter 11

10. Why don’t flood basalts build volcanic cones? 11. Mount St. Helens a. last erupted violently in 1980 b. is part of the Cascade Range

andesite 254 basalt 254 extrusive rock 244 fine-grained rock 254 intermediate rock 252 lava 244

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mafic rock 252 magma 244 porphyritic rock 254 rhyolite 254 silicic (felsic) rock 252 texture 254

c. had a revival of dome growing in 2004 d. all of the preceding

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12. Volcanic eruptions can affect the climate because

19. Which is not a major type of volcano?

a. they heat the atmosphere

a. shield

b. cinder cone

b. volcanic dust and gas can reduce the amount of solar radiation that penetrates the atmosphere

c. composite

d. stratovolcano

c. they change the elevation of the land d. all of the preceding 13. Whether volcanic eruptions are very explosive or relatively quiet is largely determined by a. the amount of gas in the lava or magma b. the ease or difficulty with which the gas escapes to the atmosphere c. the viscosity of a lava

e. spatter cone 20. A typical example of a shield volcano is a. Mount St. Helens

b. Kilauea in Hawaii

c. El Chichón

d. Mount Vesuvius

21. An example of a composite volcano is a. Mount Rainier

b. Fujiyama

c. Mount Vesuvius

d. all of the preceding

22. Which volcano is not usually made of basalt?

d. all of the preceding 14. Temperatures at which lavas solidify range from about ____°C for silicic rocks to ____°C for mafic rocks. a. 100, 200

b. 300, 1,000

c. 700, 1,200

d. 1,000, 2,000

15. One gas typically not released during a volcanic eruption is a. water vapor

b. carbon dioxide

c. sulfur dioxide

d. hydrogen sulfide

e. oxygen

a. shield

b. composite cone

c. spatter cone

d. cinder cone

23. An igneous rock made of pyroclasts has a texture called a. fragmental

b. vesicular

c. porphyritic

d. fine-grained

Expanding Your Knowledge

16. Mafic rocks contain about ____% silica. a. 10

b. 25

c. 50

d. 65

e. 80 17. Silicic rocks contain about ____% silica. a. 10

b. 25

c. 50

d. 70

e. 80

1. What might explain the remarkable alignment of the Cascade volcanoes? 2. What would the present-day environmental effects be for an eruption such as that which created Crater Lake? 3. Why are there no active volcanoes in the eastern parts of the United States and Canada? 4. Why are continental igneous rocks richer in silica than oceanic igneous rocks?

18. Which is not an extrusive igneous rock? a. granite

b. rhyolite

c. basalt

d. andesite

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Exploring Web Resources www.mhhe.com/carlson9e McGraw-Hill’s website for Physical Geology: Earth Revealed 9th edition features a wide variety of study aids, such as animations, quizzes, answers to the end-of-chapter multiple choice questions, additional readings and Google Earth exercises, Internet exercises, and much more. The URLs listed in this book are given as links in chapter web pages, making it easy to go to a website without typing in its URL. http://volcano.und.ndak.edu/ Volcano World. This is an excellent site to learn about volcanoes. At the home page, you may click on “Volcanoes” and go to a menu that includes currently active volcanoes, volcano video clips, and Earth’s volcanoes. www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/ Michigan Tech volcanoes page. The focus of this site is on scientific and educational information relative to volcanic hazard mitigation. Clicking on “volcanic humor” will show the lighter side of volcanology.

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http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/kilauea/update/ Hawaii Volcano Observatory’s Kilauea Update. You can see a summary of present activity as well as photos taken today and during the past. Go to “Kilauea” for more information and data on Kilauea. http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/sproducts.html#fs Products and fact sheets of the U.S. Geological Survey’s volcanic hazards program. Lists many of the USGS online fact sheets on volcanoes.

Animation This chapter includes the following animation on the book’s website at www.mhhe.com/carlson9e. Box 10.1, figure 1 Sequence of events at Mount St. Helen’s eruption

www.volcanolive.com/contents.html Volcano Live. This well-organized site is maintained by an Australian volcanologist. You can link to live cameras at most of the volcanoes discussed in this chapter (Mount Fuji, Mount Erebus, Mount Etna, etc.). You can get up-to-date information on what is erupting in the world and much more.

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H

A

P

T

E

R

11 Igneous Rocks, Intrusive Activity, and the Origin of Igneous Rocks Relationships to Earth Systems The Rock Cycle A Plate Tectonic Example

Igneous Rocks Igneous Rock Textures Identification of Igneous Rocks Chemistry of Igneous Rocks

Intrusive Bodies Shallow Intrusive Structures Intrusives That Crystallize at Depth

Abundance and Distribution of Plutonic Rocks How Magma Forms Heat for Melting Rock The Geothermal Gradient and Partial Melting Decompression Melting Addition of Water

How Magmas of Different Compositions Evolve Sequence of Crystallization and Melting Differentiation Partial Melting Assimilation Mixing of Magmas

Explaining Igneous Activity by Plate Tectonics Igneous Processes at Divergent Boundaries Intraplate Igneous Activity Igneous Processes at Convergent Boundaries

Summary

A geologist investigating intrusive rocks in northern Victoria Land, Antarctica.

Photo by C. C. Plummer

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C

hapters 10 and 11 are about igneous rocks and igneous processes. (Either chapter may be read first.) Chapter 10 focuses on volcanoes and igneous activity that takes place at the Earth’s surface. Chapter 11 describes igneous processes that take place underground. However, you will learn early in this chapter how volcanic as well as intrusive rocks are classified based on their grain size and mineral content. We begin the chapter by introducing the rock cycle. This is a conceptual device that shows the interrelationship between igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. We then begin focusing on igneous rocks. After the section on igneous rock classification, we describe structural relationships between bodies of intrusive rock and other rocks in the Earth’s crust. This is followed by a discussion of how magmas form and evolve. We conclude by discussing various hypotheses that relate igneous activity to plate tectonic theory.

THE ROCK CYCLE

IGNEOUS ROCK

Sediment

Weathering and erosion

Solidification

ism

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Our atmosphere and hydrosphere are products of intense igneous activity during the very early history of Earth. At that time, over 4 billion years ago, the mantle was largely molten, and as hot magma welled upward, hot gases were released to form the oceans and atmosphere. During the billions of years since the oceans and atmosphere formed, solidifying molten rock has released water (and circulated ground water) that contains dissolved elements. When the water passes through cooler rocks, the elements crystallize into minerals, some of which are vital to civilization. Copper, lead, gold, and other metals are mined from these ore deposits. A unique part of the biosphere thrives at very hot springs along the sea floor where magmatically heated water meets seawater. Volcanic activity relationships to Earth systems are discussed in chapter 10.

Metamorph

A rock is naturally formed, consolidated material usually composed of grains of one or more minerals. You will see in chapter 12 how some minerals break down chemically and form new minerals when a rock finds itself in a new physical setting. For instance, feldspars that may have formed at high temperatures deep within the Earth can react with surface waters to become clay minerals at the Earth’s surface. As mentioned in chapter 1, the Earth changes because of its internal and external heat engines. If the Earth’s internal engine had died (and tectonic forces had therefore stopped operating), the external engine plus gravity would long ago have leveled the continents virtually at sea level. The resulting sediment would have been deposited on the sea floor. Solid Earth would not be changing (except when struck by a meteorite or other extraterrestrial body). The rocks would be at rest. The minerals, water, and atmosphere would be in equilibrium (and geology would be a dull subject). But this is not the case. The internal and external forces continue to interact, forcing substances out of equilibrium. Therefore, the Earth has a highly varied and ever-changing surface. And minerals and rocks change as well. A useful aid in visualizing these changing relationships is the rock cycle shown in figure 11.1. The three major rock types—igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary—are shown. As you see, each may form at the expense of another if it is forced out of equilibrium with its physical or climatic environment by either internal or surficial forces. It is important to be aware that rock moves from deep to shallow, and from high to low temperature and pressure in response to tectonic forces and isostasy (covered in chapter 1). As described in chapter 1, magma is molten rock. (Magma may contain suspended solid crystals and gas.) Igneous rocks form when magma solidifies. If the magma is brought to the surface (where it is called lava) by a volcanic eruption, it will solidify into an extrusive igneous rock. Magma may also solidify very slowly beneath the surface. The resulting intrusive igneous

Relationships to Earth Systems

Magma

Lithification

SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Partial melting

METAMORPHIC ROCK Rock in mantle

Metamorphism

FIGURE 11.1 The rock cycle. The arrows indicate the processes whereby one kind of rock is changed to another. For clarity, arrows are not used to show that metamorphic rock can be re-metamorphosed to a different metamorphic rock or that igneous rock can be remelted to form new magma.

rock may be exposed later after uplift and erosion remove the overlying rock (as shown in figure 1.14). The igneous rock, being out of equilibrium, may then undergo weathering and erosion, and the debris produced is transported and ultimately deposited (usually on a sea floor) as sediment. If the unconsolidated sediment becomes lithified (cemented or otherwise consolidated into a rock), it becomes a sedimentary rock. The rock is buried by additional layers of sediment and sedimentary rock.

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This process can only bury layered rock in the uppermost crust to a depth of several kilometers. Tectonic forces are required to transport sedimentary (and volcanic rock) to lower levels in the crust. Heat and pressure increase with increasing depth of burial. If the temperature and pressure become high enough, as occurs in the middle and lower levels of continental crust, the original sedimentary rock is no longer in equilibrium and recrystallizes. The new rock that forms is called a metamorphic rock. If the temperature gets very high, the rock partially melts, producing magma and completing the cycle. The cycle can be repeated, as implied by the arrows in figure 11.1. However, there is no reason to expect all rocks to go through each step in the cycle. For instance, sedimentary rocks might be uplifted and exposed to weathering, creating new sediment. We should emphasize that the rock cycle is a conceptual device to help students place the common rocks and how they form in perspective. As such, it is a simplification and does not encompass all geologic processes. For instance, most magma comes from partial melting of the mantle, rather than from recycled crustal rocks.

Sea level

Trench

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A Plate Tectonic Example One way of relating the rock cycle to plate tectonics is illustrated by an example from what happens at a convergent plate boundary (figure 11.2). Magma is created in the zone of melting above the subduction zone. The magma, being less dense than adjacent rock, works its way upward. A volcanic eruption takes place if magma reaches the surface. The magma solidifies into igneous rock. The igneous rock is exposed to the atmosphere and subjected to weathering and erosion. The resulting sediment is transported and then deposited in low-lying areas. In time, the buried layers of sediment lithify into sedimentary rock. The sedimentary rock becomes increasingly more deeply buried as more sediment accumulates and tectonic forces push it deeper. After the sedimentary rock is buried to depths exceeding several kilometers, the heat and pressure become too great and the rock recrystallizes into a metamorphic rock. As the depth of burial becomes even greater (several tens of kilometers), the metamorphic rock may find itself in a zone of melting. Temperatures are now high enough so that the metamorphic rock partially melts. Magma is created, thus completing the cycle.

Erosion produces sediment

Sediment transported into basin

Sediment transported to ocean floor Sediment becomes sedimentary rock

Magma solidifies to become igneous rock

Oceanic crust

Mantle (lithosphere) Mantle (asthenosphere)

Kilometers

Sedimentary rock metamorphosed in subduction zone

100

Metamorphic rock moves to lower level in crust

Continental crust

Lithosphere

Folded and faulted sedimentary rock

Partial melting of metamorphic rock

Hot mantle partially melts to become magma

Mantle (lithosphere)

Mantle (asthenosphere)

FIGURE 11.2 The rock cycle with respect to a convergent plate boundary. Magma formed within the mantle solidifies as igneous rock at the volcano. Sediment from the eroded volcano collects in the basin to the right of the diagram. Sediment converts to sedimentary rock as it is buried by more sediment. Deeply buried sedimentary rocks are metamorphosed. The most deeply buried metamorphic rocks partially melt, and the magma moves upward. An alternate way the rock cycle works is shown on the left of the diagram. Sediment from the continent (and volcano) becomes sedimentary rock, some of which is carried down the subduction zone. It is metamorphosed as it descends. It may contribute to the magma that forms in the mantle above the subduction zone.

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Igneous Rocks, Intrusive Activity, and the Origin of Igneous Rocks

The rock cycle diagram reappears on the opening pages of chapters 10 through 15. The highlighted portion of the diagram will indicate where the material covered in each chapter fits into the rock cycle.

• •

IGNEOUS ROCKS If you go to the island of Hawaii, you might observe red hot lava flowing over the land, and, as it cools, solidifying into the fine-grained (the grains are less than 1 millimeter across), black rock we call basalt. Basalt is an igneous rock, rock that has solidified from magma. Magma is molten rock, usually rich in silica and containing dissolved gases. (Lava is magma on the Earth’s surface.) Igneous rocks may be either extrusive if they form at the Earth’s surface (e.g., basalt) or intrusive if magma solidifies underground. Granite, a coarsegrained (the grains are larger than 1 millimeter) rock composed predominantly of feldspar and quartz, is an intrusive rock. In fact, granite is the most abundant intrusive rock found in the continents. Unlike the volcanic rock in Hawaii, nobody has ever seen magma solidify into intrusive rock. So what evidence suggests that bodies of granite (and other intrusive rocks) solidified underground from magma?

Mineralogically and chemically, intrusive rocks are essentially identical to volcanic rocks. Volcanic rocks are fine-grained (or glass) due to their rapid solidification; intrusive rocks are generally coarse-grained, which indicates that the magma crystallized slowly underground. Experiments show that the slower cooling of liquids results in larger crystals. Experiments have confirmed that most of the minerals in these rocks can form only at high temperatures. Other experiments indicate that some of the minerals could have formed only under high pressures, implying they were deeply buried. More evidence comes from examining intrusive contacts, such as shown in figures 11.3 and 11.4. (A contact is a surface separating different rock types. Other types of contacts are described elsewhere in this book.) Preexisting solid rock, country rock, appears to have been forcibly broken by an intruding liquid, with the magma flowing into the fractures that developed. Country rock, incidentally, is an accepted term for any older rock into which an igneous body intruded. Close examination of the country rock immediately adjacent to the intrusive rock usually indicates that it appears “baked,” or metamorphosed, close to the contact with the intrusive rock.

Granite

Shale in foreground

FIGURE 11.3 Granite (light-colored rock) solidified from magma that intruded dark-colored country rock in Torres del Paine, Chile. The dark-colored country rock is shale deposited in a marine environment. The spires are erosional remnants of rock that were once deep underground. Photo by Kay Kepler

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Contact

Country rock (shale)

Granite Shale in foreground

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present during crystallization makes accurate determination of temperatures difficult and speculative. Later in this chapter we will discuss how magma is formed.

Igneous Rock Textures

Country rock

Intrusive rock

“Baked” zone

Chill zone

Xenoliths

Contact

FIGURE 11.4 Igneous rock intruded preexisting rock (country rock) as a liquid. (Xenoliths are usually much smaller than indicated.)

Rock types of the country rock often match xenoliths, fragments of rock that are distinct from the body of igneous rocks in which they are enclosed. In the intrusive rock adjacent to contacts with country rock are chill zones, finer-grained rocks that indicate magma solidified more quickly here because of the rapid loss of heat to cooler rock.

Laboratory experiments have greatly increased our understanding of how igneous rocks form. However, geologists have not been able to artificially make coarsely crystalline granite. Only very fine-grained rocks containing the minerals of granite have been made from artificial magmas, or “melts.” The temperature and pressure at which granite apparently forms can be duplicated in the laboratory—but not the time element. According to calculations, a large body of magma requires over a million years to solidify completely. This very gradual cooling causes the coarse-grained texture of most intrusive rocks. Chemical processes involving silicates may be exceedingly slow. Yet another problem in trying to apply experimental procedures to real rocks is determining the role of water and other gases in the crystallization of rocks such as granite. Only a small amount of gas is retained in rock crystallized underground from a magma, but large amounts of gas (especially water vapor) are released during volcanic eruptions. Laboratory experiments that involve melt solidification under gaseous conditions provide us with insight into the role that gases in underground magma might have played before they escaped. One example indicates the importance of gases. Laboratory studies have shown that granite can melt at temperatures as low as 650°C if water is present. Without the water, the melting temperature is several hundred degrees higher. Not knowing how much water was

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Texture refers to a rock’s appearance with respect to the size, shape, and arrangement of its grains or other constituents. Most (but not all) igneous rocks are crystalline; that is, they are made of interlocking crystals (of, for instance, quartz and feldspar). The most significant aspect of texture in igneous rocks is grain (or crystal) size. Extrusive rocks typically are fine-grained rocks, in which most of the grains are smaller than 1 millimeter. The grains, if they are crystals, are small because magma cools rapidly at the Earth’s surface, and so they have less time to form. Some intrusive rocks are also fine-grained; these occur as smaller bodies that apparently solidified near the surface upon intrusion into relatively cold country rock (probably within a couple kilometers of the Earth’s surface). Basalt, andesite, and rhyolite are the common fine-grained igneous rocks. Igneous rocks that formed at considerable depth—usually more than several kilometers—are called plutonic rocks (after Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld). Characteristically, these rocks are coarse-grained, reflecting the slow cooling and solidification of magma. For our purposes, coarse-grained (or coarsely crystalline) rocks are defined as those in which most of the grains are larger than 1 millimeter. The crystalline grains of plutonic rocks are commonly interlocked in a mosaic pattern (figure 11.5). An extremely coarse-grained (grains over 5 centimeters) igneous rock is called a pegmatite (see box 11.1). The crystals or grains of most fine-grained rocks are considerably smaller than 1 millimeter and cannot be distinguished by the unaided eye. So, for practical purposes, if you can discern the individual grains, regard the rock as coarse-grained; if not, consider it fine-grained. Some rocks are porphyritic; that is, large crystals are enclosed in a groundmass of finer-grained crystals or glass. A milk chocolate bar containing whole almonds has the appearance of porphyritic texture. If the groundmass is fine-grained, extrusive rock names are used. For instance, figure 10.9 shows a porphyritic andesite. Porphyritic extrusive rocks are usually interpreted as having begun crystallizing slowly underground followed by eruption and rapid solidification of the remaining magma at the Earth’s surface. Some porphyritic rocks have a coarse-grained groundmass in which the individual grains are over 1 millimeter. The larger crystals enclosed in the groundmass are much bigger, usually two or more centimeters across. Porphyritic granite is an example.

Identification of Igneous Rocks Igneous rock names are based on texture (notably grain size) and mineralogical composition (which reflects chemical composition). Mineralogically (and chemically) equivalent rocks are granite-rhyolite, diorite-andesite, and gabbro-basalt. The relationships between igneous rocks are shown in figure 11.6.

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1cm 1cm 1mm 1mm

A

B

FIGURE 11.5 (A) Coarse-grained texture characteristic of plutonic rock. Feldspars are white and pink. Although this quartz is transparent, it appears light gray. Biotite mica is black. A U.S. penny is used for a scale as the “roof” of the monument is 1 millimeter thick and 1 centimeter wide. (B) A similar rock seen through a polarizing microscope. Note the interlocking crystal grains of individual minerals. Photos by C. C. Plummer

Rock Name Coarsegrained

GRANITE

DIORITE

GABBRO

PERIDOTITE

Texture Fine-grained (may be porphyritic) 100%

RHYOLITE

ANDESITE

BASALT

Komatiite (very rare)

Biotit

e

So d ium -ric h

75%

Mineral Content

50%

Ferromagnesians

Amp pla gio c

Oli

hibo

las

vin

le Pyr

e

Cal c

Potassium feldspar Plagioclase feldspar

oxe

ium -ric hp

ne

lag ioc se la

25%

e

Quartz 0% SILICIC (FELSIC)

INTERMEDIATE

MAFIC

ULTRAMAFIC

Increasing K and Na Chemical Composition

Increasing Ca, Fe, and Mg

75% SiO2

Increasing silica

45% SiO2

FIGURE 11.6 Classification chart for the most common igneous rocks. Rock names based on special textures are not shown. Sodium-rich plagioclase is associated with silicic rocks, whereas calcium-rich plagioclase is associated with mafic rocks. The names of the particular ferromagnesian minerals (biotite, etc.) are placed in the diagram at the approximate composition of the rocks in which they are most likely to be found.

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I N G R E AT E R D E P T H 1 1 . 1

Pegmatite—A Rock Made of Giant Crystals

P

egmatites are extremely coarse-grained igneous rocks (see box figure 1). In some pegmatites, crystals are as large as 10 meters across. Strictly speaking, a pegmatite can be of diorite, gabbro, or granite. However, the vast majority of pegmatites are silica-rich, with very large crystals of potassium feldspar, sodium-rich plagioclase feldspars, and quartz. Hence, the term pegmatite generally refers to a rock of granitic composition (if other wise, a term such as gabbroic pegmatite is used). Pegmatites are interesting as geological phenomena and important as minable resources. The extremely coarse texture of pegmatites is attributed to both slow cooling and the low viscosity (resistance to flow) of the fluid from which they form. Lava solidifying to rhyolite is very viscous. Magma solidifying to granite, being chemically similar, should be equally viscous. Pegmatites, however, probably crystallize from a fluid composed largely of water under high pressure. Water molecules and ions from the parent, granitic magma make up a residual magma. Geologists believe the following sequence of events accounts for most pegmatites. As a granite pluton cools, increasingly more of the magma solidifies into the minerals of a granite. By the time the pluton is well over 90% solid, the residual magma contains a very high amount of silica and ions of elements that will crystallize into potassium and sodium feldspars. Also present are elements that could not be accommodated into the crystal structures of the common minerals that formed during the normal solidification phase of the pluton. Fluids, notably water, that were in the original magma are left over as well. If no fracture above the pluton permits the fluids to escape, they are sealed in, as in a pressure cooker. The watery residual magma has a low viscosity, which allows appropriate atoms to migrate easily toward growing crystals. The crystals add more and more atoms and grow very large. Pegmatite bodies are generally quite small. Many are podlike structures, located either within the upper portion of a granite pluton or within the overlying country rock near the contact with granite, the fluid body evidently having squeezed into the country rock before solidifying. Pegmatite dikes are fairly common, especially within granite plutons, where they apparently filled cracks that developed in the already solid granite. Some pegmatites form small dikes along contacts between granite and country rock, filling cracks that developed as the cooling granite pluton contracted. Most pegmatites contain only quartz, feldspar, and perhaps mica. Minerals of considerable commercial value are found in a few pegmatites. Large crystals of muscovite mica are mined from pegmatites. These crystals are called “books” because the cleavage flakes (tens of centimeters across) look like pages. Because muscovite is an excellent insulator, the cleavage sheets are used in electri-

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BOX 11.1 ■ FIGURE 1 Pegmatite in northern Victoria Land, Antarctica. The knife is 8 centimeters long. The black crystals are tourmaline. Quartz and feldspar are light colored. Photo by C. C. Plummer

cal devices, such as toasters, to separate uninsulated electrical wires. Even the large feldspar crystals in pegmatites are mined for various industrial uses, notably the manufacture of ceramics. Many rare elements are mined from pegmatites. These elements were not absorbed by the minerals of the main pluton and so were concentrated in the residual pegmatitic magma, where they crystallized as constituents of unusual minerals. Minerals containing the element lithium are mined from pegmatites. Lithium becomes part of a sheet silicate structure to form a pink or purple variety of mica (called lepidolite). Uranium ores, similarly concentrated in the residual melt of magmas, are also extracted from pegmatites. Some pegmatites are mined for gemstones. Emerald and aquamarine, varieties of the mineral beryl, occur in pegmatites that crystallized from a solution containing the element beryllium. A large number of the world’s very rare minerals are found only in pegmatites, many of these in only one known pegmatite body. These rare minerals are mainly of interest to collectors and museums. Hydrothermal veins (described in chapter 15) are closely related to pegmatites. Veins of quartz are common in country rock near granite. Many of these are believed to be caused by water that escapes from the magma. Silica dissolved in the very hot water cakes on the walls of cracks as the water cools while traveling surfaceward. Sometimes valuable metals such as gold, silver, lead, zinc, and copper are deposited with the quartz in veins. (See chapter 15 for more on veins.)

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Granite Gabbro Diorite

Coarsegrained

GRANITE

100%

DIORITE

Biotit

e

75%

50%

Sod iu

mrich

Ferromagnesians

Amp pla

Potassium feldspar

hibo

gio c

le Pyr

las e

oxe

Cal ci

ne

um -ric h

p

g la

Plagioclase feldspar

25%

la ioc se

Quartz 0% Fine-grained (may be porphyritic)

GABBRO

RHYOLITE

ANDESITE

BASALT

Andesite

Rhyolite

Basalt

FIGURE 11.7 Samples of common igneous rocks and their relationship to the classification diagram (figure 11.6). Peridotite is not shown. Do not try to identify real rocks by simply comparing them to photos—use the properties, such as identifying minerals and their amounts. Photos by C. C. Plummer

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Because of their larger mineral grains, plutonic rocks are easier to identify than extrusive rocks. The physical properties of each mineral in a plutonic rock can be determined more readily. And, of course, knowing what minerals are present makes rock identification a simpler task. For instance, gabbro is formed of coarse-grained ferromagnesian minerals and gray, plagioclase feldspar. (Recall from the mineral chapter that ferromagnesian minerals are silicates that contain iron and magnesium—amphibole, pyroxene, olivine, and biotite.) One can positively identify the feldspar on the basis of cleavage and, with practice, verify that no quartz is present. Gabbro’s fine-grained counterpart is basalt, which is also composed of ferromagnesian minerals and plagioclase. The individual minerals cannot be identified by the naked eye, however, and one must use the less reliable attribute of color—basalt is usually dark gray to black. As you can see from figure 11.6, granite and rhyolite are composed predominantly of feldspars (usually white or pink) and quartz. Granite, being coarse-grained, can be positively identified by verifying that quartz is present. Rhyolite is usually cream-colored, tan, or pink. Its light color indicates that ferromagnesian minerals are not abundant. Diorite and andesite are composed of feldspars and significant amounts of ferromagnesian minerals (30–50%). The minerals can be identified and their percentages estimated to indicate diorite. Andesite, being fine-grained, can tentatively be identified by its medium-gray or medium-green color. Its appearance is intermediate between light-colored rhyolite and dark basalt. Use the chart in figure 11.6 along with table 11.1 to identify the most common igneous rocks. You may also find it helpful to turn to appendix B, which includes a key for identifying common igneous rocks. (Photos of typical igneous rocks are shown in figure 11.7.)

Chemistry of Igneous Rocks The chemical composition of the magma determines which minerals and how much of each will crystallize when an igneous rock forms. For instance, the presence of quartz in a rock indicates that the magma was enriched in silica (SiO2). The lower part of figure 11.6 shows the relationship of chemical composition to rock type. Chemical analyses of rocks are reported as weight percentages of oxides (e.g., SiO2, MgO,

TABLE 11.1 Coarse-Grained Fine-Grained (often porphyritic) Mineral Content

Color of Rock (most commonly)

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SiO2 CaO

Granite Rhyolite

Al2O3 Na2O + K2O

283

Fe + Mg oxides

Diorite Andesite

Gabbro Basalt

FIGURE 11.8 The average chemical composition of silicic, intermediate, and mafic rocks. Composition is given in weight percent of oxides. Note that as the amount of silica decreases, the oxides of Na and K decrease, and the oxides of Ca, Fe, and Mg increase. Al oxide does not vary significantly.

Na2O, etc.) rather than as separate elements (e.g., Si, O, Mg, Na). Figure 11.8 shows the chemical composition of average rocks. For virtually all igneous rocks, SiO2 (silica) is the most abundant component. The amount of SiO2 varies from about 45% to 75% of the total weight of common igneous rocks. The variations between these extremes account for striking differences in the appearance and mineral content of the rocks.

Mafic Rocks Rocks with a silica content close to 50% (by weight) are considered silica-poor, even though SiO2 is, by far, the most abundant constituent (figure 11.8). Chemical analyses show that the remainder is composed mostly of the oxides of aluminum (Al2O3), calcium (CaO), magnesium (MgO), and iron (FeO and Fe2O3). (These oxides generally combine with SiO2 to form the silicate minerals as described in chapter 9.) Rocks in this group are called mafic—silica-deficient igneous rocks with a relatively high content of magnesium, iron, and calcium. (The term mafic comes from magnesium and ferric.) Basalt and gabbro are, of course, mafic rocks.

Identification of Most Common Igneous Rocks Granite Rhyolite

Diorite Andesite

Gabbro Basalt

Peridotite —

Quartz, feldspars (white, light gray, or pink). Minor ferromagnesian minerals. Light-colored

Feldspars (white or gray) and about 35–50% ferromagnesian minerals. No quartz. Medium-gray or mediumgreen

Predominance of ferromagnesian minerals. Rest of rock is plagioclase feldspar (medium to dark gray). Dark gray to black

Entirely ferromagnesian minerals (olivine and pyroxene). Green to black

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Silicic (Felsic) Rocks

from the Earth’s crust. Where we find large bodies of ultramafic rocks, the usual interpretation is that a part of the mantle has traveled upward as solid rock.

At the other extreme, the silica-rich (65% or more SiO2) rocks tend to have only very small amounts of the oxides of calcium, magnesium, and iron. The remaining 25% to 35% of these rocks is mostly aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and oxides of sodium (Na2O) and potassium (K2O). These are called silicic or felsic rocks—silica-rich igneous rocks with a relatively high content of potassium and sodium (the fel part of the name comes from feldspar, which crystallizes from the potassium, sodium, aluminum, and silicon oxides; si in felsic is for silica). The silicic rocks rhyolite and granite are light-colored because of the low amount of ferromagnesian minerals.

INTRUSIVE BODIES Intrusions, or intrusive structures, are bodies of intrusive rock whose names are based on their size and shape, as well as their relationship to surrounding rocks. They are important aspects of the architecture, or structure, of the Earth’s crust. The various intrusions are named and classified on the basis of the following considerations: (1) Is the body large or small? (2) Does it have a particular geometric shape? (3) Did the rock form at a considerable depth, or was it a shallow intrusion? (4) Does it follow layering in the country rock or not?

Intermediate Rocks Rocks with a chemical content between that of felsic and mafic are classified as intermediate rocks. Andesite, which is usually green or medium gray, is the most common intermediate volcanic rock.

Shallow Intrusive Structures

Ultramafic Rocks

Some igneous bodies apparently solidified near the surface of the Earth (probably at depths of less than 2 kilometers). These bodies appear to have solidified in the subsurface “plumbing systems” of volcanoes or lava flows. Shallow intrusive structures tend to be relatively small compared with those that formed at considerable depth. Because the country rock near the Earth’s surface generally is cool, intruded magma tends to chill and solidify relatively rapidly. Also, smaller magma bodies will cool faster than larger bodies, regardless of depth. For both of these reasons, shallow intrusive bodies are likely to be fine-grained. A volcanic neck is an intrusive structure apparently formed from magma that solidified within the throat of a volcano. One of the best examples is Ship Rock in New Mexico (figure 11.9).

An ultramafic rock is composed entirely or almost entirely of ferromagnesian minerals. No feldspars are present and, of course, no quartz. Peridotite, a coarse-grained rock composed of pyroxene and olivine, is the most abundant ultramafic rock. Chemically, these rocks contain less than 45% silica. Note from the chart (figure 11.6) that komatiite, the volcanic ultramafic rock, is very rare. Ultramafic extrusive rocks are mostly restricted to the very early history of the Earth. For our purposes, they need not be discussed further. Some ultramafic rocks form from differentiation (explained later in this chapter) of a basaltic magma at very high temperatures. Most ultramafic rocks come from the mantle, rather than

Former volcano Original surface

Volcanic neck Present surface

Layered sedimentary rock

Dike

FIGURE 11.9 (A) Ship Rock in New Mexico, which rises 420 meters (1,400 feet) above the desert floor. (B) Relationship to the former volcano. Photo © Bill Hatcher/National Geographic/Getty Images

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Earth’s surface Sill

Sill Dike Dike

Cracks in bedrock A

B

Dike

FIGURE 11.10 (A) Cracks and bedding planes are planes of weakness. (B) Concordant intrusions where magma has intruded between sedimentary layers are sills; discordant intrusions are dikes.

Here is how geologists interpret the history of this feature. A volcano formed above what is now Ship Rock. The magma for the volcano moved upward through a more or less cylindrical “plumbing system.” Eruptions ceased and the magma underground solidified into what is now Ship Rock. In time, the volcano and its underlying rock—the country rock around Ship Rock—eroded away. The more resistant igneous body eroded more slowly into its present shape. Weathering and erosion are continuing (falling rock has been a serious hazard to rock climbers).

Dikes and Sills

like a tabletop), discordant, intrusive structure (figure 11.10). Discordant means that the body is not parallel to any layering in the country rock. (Think of a dike as cutting across layers of country rock.) Dikes may form at shallow depths and be finegrained, such as those at Ship Rock, or form at greater depths and be coarser-grained. Dikes need not appear as walls protruding from the ground (figure 11.11). The ones at Ship Rock do so only because they are more resistant to weathering and erosion than the country rock. A sill is also a tabular intrusive structure, but it is concordant. That is, sills, unlike dikes, are parallel to any planes or layering in the country rock (figures 11.10 and 11.12). Typically,

Another, and far more common, intrusive structure can also be seen at Ship Rock. The low, wall-like ridge extending outward from Ship Rock is an eroded dike. A dike is a tabular (shaped

ne esto

FIGURE 11.12

rs

laye

Lim

A sill (dark layer) intruded between limestone layers, Glacier National Park, Montana. The limestone adjacent to the sill has been contact metamorphosed into light-colored marble (explained in chapter 15). Photo © William E. Ferguson

s

yer

e la

n esto

Lim Sill

FIGURE 11.11 Dikes (light-colored rocks) in northern Victoria Land, Antarctica. Photo by C. C. Plummer

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the country rock bounding a sill is layered sedimentary rock. As magma squeezes into a crack between two layers, it solidifies into a sill. If the country rock is not layered, a tabular intrusion is regarded as a dike.

Intrusives That Crystallize at Depth A pluton is a body of magma or igneous rock that crystallized at considerable depth within the crust. Where plutons are exposed at the Earth’s surface, they are arbitrarily distinguished by size. A stock is a relatively small discordant pluton, which has an extent of less than 100 square kilometers. That is, it crops out (exposed to the atmosphere) over a map area of under 100 square kilometers. If the area of surface exposure of plu-

Part of intrusions eroded away

Batholith ( > 100 km2 )

tonic rock is indicated on a map to be greater than 100 square kilometers, the body is called a batholith (figure 11.13). Most batholiths extend over areas vastly greater than the minimum 100 square kilometers. Although batholiths may contain mafic and intermediate rocks, they almost always are predominantly composed of granite. Detailed studies of batholiths indicate that they are formed of numerous, coalesced plutons. Apparently, large blobs of magma worked their way upward through the lower crust and collected 5 to 30 kilometers below the surface, where they solidified (figure 11.14). These blobs of magma, known as diapirs, are less dense than the surrounding rock that is pliable and shouldered aside as the magma rises. Batholiths occupy large portions of North America, particularly in the west. Over half of California’s Sierra Nevada (figure 11.15) is a batholith

Earth’s former surface Earth’s present surface

Portion removed by erosion

Stock ( < 100 km2 )

Country rock

C First pluton emplaced

Earth’s surface

Pluton in place solidifying to granite

Country rock

B Other plutons emplaced

Magma diapir on its journey upward A

FIGURE 11.13 (A) The first of numerous magma diapirs has worked its way upward and is emplaced in the country rock. (B) Other magma diapirs have intruded, coalesced, and solidified into a solid mass of plutonic rock. (C) After uplift and erosion, surface exposures of plutonic rock are a batholith and a stock.

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Completely solidified pluton Individual plutons collected to form a batholith

Pluton with a still-liquid core Pluton that is mostly liquid

Diapirs rising through the crust Continental crust Zone of partial melting of lower crust

FIGURE 11.14 Diapirs of magma travel upward from the lower crust and solidify in the upper crust. (Not drawn to scale.)

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whose individual plutons were emplaced during a period of over 100 million years. An even larger batholith extends almost the entire length of the mountain ranges of Canada’s west coast and southeastern Alaska—a distance of 1,800 kilometers. Smaller batholiths are also found in eastern North America in the Piedmont east of the Appalachian Mountains and in New England and the coastal provinces of Canada. (The extent and location of North American batholiths are shown on the geologic map on the inside front cover.) Granite is considerably more common than rhyolite, its volcanic counterpart. Why is this? Silicic magma is much more viscous (that is, more resistant to flow) than mafic magma. Therefore, a silicic magma body will travel upward through the crust more slowly and with more difficulty than mafic or intermediate magma. Unless it is exceptionally hot, a silicic magma will not be able to work its way through the relatively cool and rigid rocks of the upper few kilometers of crust. Instead, it is much more likely to solidify slowly into a pluton.

ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF PLUTONIC ROCKS Granite is the most abundant igneous rock in mountain ranges. It is also the most commonly found igneous rock in the interior lowlands of continents. Throughout the lowlands of much of Canada, very old plutons have intruded even older metamorphic rock. As explained in chapter 5 on mountains and the continental crust, very old mountain ranges have, over time, eroded and become the stable interior of a continent. Metamorphic and plutonic rocks similar in age and complexity

FIGURE 11.15 Part of the Sierra Nevada batholith. All lightcolored rock shown here (including that under the distant snow-covered mountains) is granite. The extent of the Sierra Nevada batholith is shown in the inset. Photo by C. C. Plummer

California

Ne

va

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Temperature (°C) 1000 2000

3000 0 Lithospheric

ne Zo

50

r the

Solid

Liquid

nt

150

adie l Gr ma

100

100 Asthenosphere

g eltin al M ar ti of P

o Ge

to those in Canada are found in the Great Plains of the United States. Here, however, they are mostly covered by a veneer (a kilometer or so) of younger, sedimentary rock. These “basement” rocks are exposed to us in only a few places. In Grand Canyon, Arizona, the Colorado River has eroded through the layers of sedimentary rock to expose the ancient plutonic and metamorphic basement. In the Black Hills of South Dakota, local uplift and subsequent erosion have exposed similar rocks. Granite, then, is the predominant igneous rock of the continents. As described in chapter 10, basalt and gabbro are the predominant rocks underlying the oceans. Andesite (usually along continental margins) is the building material of most young volcanic mountains. Underneath the crust, ultramafic rocks make up the upper mantle.

200 300 400

Depth (km)

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Pressure (Kb)

288

500 200 600

HOW MAGMA FORMS A common misconception is that the lava erupted from volcanoes comes from an “ocean of magma” beneath the crust. However, as you have already learned in chapter one, the mantle is not molten but solid rock. In order to understand how magma forms we must consider the source of heat for melting rock, the conditions at depth beneath the Earth’s surface, and the conditions under which rocks in the mantle and lower crust will melt.

Heat for Melting Rock Most of the heat that contributes to the generation of magma comes from the very hot Earth’s core (where temperatures are estimated to be greater than 5,000°C). Heat is conducted toward the Earth’s surface through the mantle and crust. This is comparable to the way heat is conducted through the metal of a frying pan. Heat is also brought from the lower mantle when part of the mantle flows upward, either through convection (described in chapters 1 and 4) or by hot mantle plumes.

The Geothermal Gradient and Partial Melting A miner descending a mine shaft notices a rise in temperature. This is due to the geothermal gradient, the rate at which temperature increases with increasing depth beneath the surface. Data show the geothermal gradient, on the average, to be about 3°C for each 100 meters (30°C/km) of depth in the upper part of the crust decreasing in the mantle. Figure 11.16 shows the geothermal gradient for the crust and upper mantle. Unlike ice which has a single melting point, rocks melt over a range of temperatures. This is because they are made up of more than one mineral and each mineral has its own melting point. The zone of partial melting in figure 11.16 shows the range of temperatures over which rocks will melt below the

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FIGURE 11.16 Geothermal gradient and zone of partial melting for mantle peridotite.

Earth’s surface. To the left of the zone of partial melting, the rocks are completely solid. To the right of it, rock will be completely liquid. Within the zone of partial melting, the rocks will be partly solid and partly molten. It is important to notice that in figure 11.16 the geothermal gradient does not intersect the zone of partial melting. At all depths, the temperature is not high enough to allow the rock to melt and no magma is forming. This is typical of the mantle in most locations. In order for magma to form, conditions must change so that the geothermal gradient can intersect the zone of partial melting. The two most common mechanisms believed to create these conditions are decompression melting and the addition of water.

Decompression Melting The melting point of a mineral generally increases with increasing pressure. Pressure increases with depth in the Earth’s crust, just as temperature does. So a rock that melts at a given temperature at the surface of the Earth requires a higher temperature to melt deep underground. Decompression melting takes place when a body of hot mantle rock moves upward and the pressure is reduced. Figure 11.17A shows the effect of decompression melting. Consider point a. At this pressure and temperature, the rock is below the zone of partial melting and will not melt. If however, the pressure decreases, the geothermal gradient will move up as the pressure at any given temperature decreases. The rock at point a will now be at point a′ which is within the zone of partial melting and magma will begin to form.

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chapter relates these processes to plate tectonics for the larger view of igneous activity.

T1

a´ b

b´ a Wet

A

D Dry

B

FIGURE 11.17 Mechanisms for melting rocks in the mantle. (A) Decompression melting. (B) Flux melting.

Addition of Water If enough gas, especially water vapor, is present and under high pressure, a dramatic change occurs in the melting process. Water sealed in under high pressure helps break the silicon-oxygen bonds in minerals, causing the crystals to liquify. A rock’s melting temperature is significantly lowered by water under high pressure. Figure 11.17B shows the effect of water on the melting point of rocks in the mantle. The “dry” curve shows the temperature needed to melt rock that contains no water. The “wet” curve shows the temperature needed to melt rock that contains water. Consider “dry” mantle rock at point b. At this depth the mantle needs to be above temperature T1 in order to melt. Point b lies to the right of the geothermal gradient, so the temperature in the mantle is not high enough for melting to occur. Addition of water to the mantle moves the melting curve to the left. Point b′ represents the new melting point of the mantle (T2), which lies to the left of the geothermal gradient. “Wet” mantle at this depth will therefore undergo melting.

Sequence of Crystallization and Melting Early in the twentieth century, N. L. Bowen conducted a series of experiments that determined the sequence in which minerals crystallize in a cooling magma. The sequence became known as Bowen’s reaction series and is shown in figure 11.18. A simplified explanation of the series and its importance to igneous rocks is presented next. Bowen’s experiments showed that in a cooling magma, certain minerals are stable at higher melting temperatures and crystallize before those stable at lower temperatures. Looking at the discontinuous branch, which contains only ferromagnesian minerals, we can see that olivine crystallizes before pyroxene and pyroxene crystallizes before amphibole. A complication is that early formed crystals react with the remaining melt and recrystallize as cooling proceeds. For instance, early formed olivine crystals react with the melt and recrystallize to pyroxene when pyroxene’s temperature of crystallization is reached. Upon further cooling, pyroxene continues to crystallize until all of the melt is used up or the melting temperature of amphibole is reached. At this point, pyroxene reacts with the remaining melt and amphibole forms at its expense. If all of the iron and magnesium in the melt is used up before all of the pyroxene recrystallizes to amphibole, then the ferromagnesian minerals in the solid rock would be amphibole and pyroxene. (The rock would not contain olivine or biotite.) Crystallization in the discontinuous and the continuous branch takes place at the same time. The continuous branch contains only plagioclase feldspar. Plagioclase is a solidsolution mineral (discussed in chapter 9 on minerals) in which either sodium or calcium atoms can be accommodated in its crystal structure, along with aluminum, silicon, and oxygen. The composition of plagioclase changes as magma is cooled and earlier formed crystals react with the melt. The first plagioclase crystals to form as a hot melt cools contain calcium but

HOW MAGMAS OF DIFFERENT COMPOSITIONS EVOLVE A major topic of investigation for geologists is why igneous rocks are so varied in composition. On a global scale, magma composition is clearly controlled by geologic setting. But why? Why are basaltic magmas associated with oceanic crust, whereas granitic magmas are common in the continental crust? On a local scale, igneous bodies often show considerable variation in rock type. For instance, individual plutons typically display a considerable range of compositions, mostly varieties of granite, but many also will contain minor amounts of gabbro or diorite. In this section, we describe processes that result in differences in composition of magmas. The final section of this

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WEB BOX 11.2

Bowen’s Reaction Series in Greater Depth

G

o to our website for a more in-depth presentation of Bowen’s reaction series. Also, check out the interactive Bowen’s reaction simulator which is the Internet exercise for this chapter. Go to: www.mhhe.com/carlson9e

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Crystallizing minerals and their silicate structures

ULTRAMAFIC Olivine

Calcium-rich

Reaction

Reaction

spar feld ase

INTERMEDIATE

Plag

Amphibole

About equal calcium and sodium

iocl

Reaction

Continuous branch

Pyroxene

Discontinuous branch

Temperature decreases

MAFIC

Biotite

(Muscovite)

Sodium-rich

SILICIC (FELSIC)

Potassium feldspar Quartz

FIGURE 11.18 Bowen’s reaction series. The reaction series as shown is very generalized. Moreover, it represents Bowen’s experiments that involved melting a relatively silica-rich variety of basalt.

little or no sodium. As cooling continues, the early formed crystals grow and incorporate progressively more sodium into their crystal structures. Any magma left after the crystallization is completed along the two branches is richer in silicon than the original magma and also contains abundant potassium and aluminum. The potassium and aluminum combine with silicon to form potassium feldspar. (If the water pressure is high, muscovite may also form at this stage.) Excess SiO2 crystallizes as quartz. From Bowen’s reaction series, we can derive several important concepts that are necessary to understand igneous rocks and processes: •

A mafic magma will crystallize into pyroxene (with or without olivine) and calcium-rich plagioclase—that is, basalt or gabbro—if the early formed crystals are not removed from the remaining magma. Similarly, an intermediate magma will crystallize into diorite or andesite, if early formed minerals are not removed.

If minerals are separated from a magma, the remaining magma is more silicic than the original magma. For example, if olivine and calcium-rich plagioclase are removed, the residual melt would be richer in silicon and sodium and poorer in iron and magnesium.

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If you heat a rock, the minerals will melt in reverse order. In other words, you would be going up the series as diagrammed in figure 11.18. Quartz and potassium feldspar would melt first. If the temperature is raised further, biotite and sodium-rich plagioclase would contribute to the melt. Any minerals higher in the series would remain solid unless the temperature is raised further.

Bowen’s reaction series can be used to show how two important processes that create and modify magma composition work. These are differentiation and partial melting.

Differentiation The process by which different ingredients separate from an originally homogenous mixture is differentiation. An example is the separation of whole milk into cream and nonfat milk. Differentiation in magmas takes place mainly through crystal settling, the downward movement of minerals that are denser (heavier) than the magma from which they crystallized. If crystal settling takes place in a mafic magma chamber, olivine and, perhaps, pyroxene crystallize and settle to the bottom of the magma chamber (figure 11.19). This makes the remaining magma more silicic. Calcium-rich plagioclase also separates as it forms. The remaining magma is, therefore,

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E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 1 1 . 3

Harnessing Magmatic Energy

B

uried magma chambers indirectly contribute the heat for today’s geothermal electric generating plants. As explained in chapter 17 (Ground Water), water becomes heated in hot rocks. The heat source is usually presumed to be an underlying magma chamber. The rocks containing the hot water are penetrated by drilling. Steam exiting the hole is used to generate electricity. Why not drill into and tap magma itself for energy? The amount of energy stored in a body of magma is enormous. The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that magma chambers in the United States within 10 kilometers of Earth’s surface contain about 5,000 times as much energy as the country consumes each year. Our energy problems could largely be solved if significant amounts of this energy were harnessed. There are some formidable technical difficulties in drilling into a magma chamber and conver ting the heat into useful energy. Despite these difficulties, the United States has considered developing magmatic energy. Experimental drilling has been carried out in Hawaii through the basalt crust of a lava lake that formed in 1960. As drill bits approach a magma chamber, they must penetrate increasingly hotter rock. The drill bit must be made of special alloys to prevent it from becoming too soft to cut rock. The rock immedi-

ately adjacent to a basaltic magma chamber is around 1,000°C, even though that rock is solid. Drilling into the magma would require a special technique. One that was experimented with is a jetaugmented drill. As the drill enters the magma chamber, it simultaneously cools and solidifies the magma in front of the drill bit. Thus, the drill bit creates a column of rock that extends downward into the magma chamber and simultaneously bores a hole down the center of this column. Once the hollow column is deep enough within the magma chamber, a boiler is placed in the hole. The boiler is protected from the magma by the jacket of the column of rock. Water would be pumped down the hole and turned to water vapor in the boiler by heat from the magma. Steam emerging from the hole would be used to generate electricity. In principle, the idea is fairly simple, but there are serious technical problems. For one thing, high pressures would have to be maintained on the drill bit during drilling and while the boiler system was being installed; otherwise, gases within the magma might blast the magma out of the drill hole and create a human-made volcano. (The closest thing to a human-made volcano occurred in Iceland when a small amount of magma broke into a geothermal steam well and erupted briefly at the well head, showering the area with a few tons of volcanic debris.)

depleted of calcium, iron, and magnesium. Because these minerals were economical in using the relatively abundant silica, the remaining magma becomes richer in silica as well as in sodium and potassium. It is possible that by removing enough mafic components, the residual magma would be silicic enough to solidify into granite (or rhyolite). But it is more likely only enough mafic components would be removed to allow an intermediate residual magma, which would solidify into diorite or andesite. The lowermost portions of some large sills are composed predomi-

nantly of olivine and pyroxene, whereas upper levels are considerably less mafic. Even in large sills, however, differentiation has rarely progressed far enough to produce granite within the sill.

Ore Deposits Due to Crystal Settling Crystal settling accounts for important ore deposits that are mined for chromium and platinum. Most of the world’s chromium and platinum come from a huge sill in South Africa. The

FIGURE 11.19

More silica-rich magma

A

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B

Accumulation of ferromagnesium minerals

Differentiation of a magma body. (A) Recently intruded mafic magma is completely liquid. (B) Upon slow cooling, ferromagnesian minerals, such as olivine, crystallize and sink to the bottom of the magma chamber. The remaining liquid is now an intermediate magma. (C) Some of the intermediate magma moves upward to form a smaller magma chamber at a higher level that feeds a volcano.

C

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sill, the famous Bushveldt Complex, is 8 kilometers thick and 500 kilometers long. Layers of chromite (a chromium-bearing mineral) up to 2 meters thick are found, and mined, at the base of the sill. Layers containing platinum overlie the chromiterich layers.

Country rock Magma

Partial Melting As mentioned earlier, progressing upward through Bowen’s reaction series (going from cool to hot) gives us the sequence in which minerals in a rock melt. As might be expected, the first portion of a rock to melt as temperatures rise forms a liquid with the chemical composition of quartz and potassium feldspar. The oxides of silicon plus potassium and aluminum “sweated out” of the solid rock could accumulate into a pocket of silicic magma. If higher temperatures prevailed, more mafic magmas would be created. Small pockets of magma could merge and form a large enough mass to rise as a diapir. In nature, temperatures rarely rise high enough to entirely melt a rock. Partial melting of the lower continental crust likely produces silicic magma. The magma rises and eventually solidifies at a higher level in the crust into granite, or rhyolite if it reaches Earth’s surface. Geologists generally regard basaltic magma (Hawaiian lava, for example) as the product of partial melting of ultramafic rock in the mantle, at temperatures hotter than those in the crust. The solid residue left behind in the mantle when the basaltic magma is removed is an even more silica-deficient ultramafic rock.

A

Part of xenolith having a higher melting temperature remains solid

Part of xenolith having a lower melting temperature melts and becomes part of magma. B

Xenolith of unmelted rock

Assimilation A very hot magma may melt some of the country rock and assimilate the newly molten material into the magma (figure 11.20). This is like putting a few ice cubes into a cup of hot coffee. The ice melts and the coffee cools as it becomes diluted. Similarly, if a hot basaltic magma, perhaps generated from the mantle, melts portions of the continental crust, the magma simultaneously becomes richer in silica and cooler. Possibly intermediate magmas such as are associated with circum-Pacific andesite volcanoes may derive from assimilation of some crustal rocks by a basaltic magma.

Mixing of Magmas Some of our igneous rocks may be “cocktails” of different magmas. The concept is quite simple. If two magmas meet and merge within the crust, the combined magma should be compositionally intermediate (figure 11.21). If you had approximately equal amounts of a granitic magma mixing with a basaltic magma, one would think that the resulting magma would crystallize underground as diorite or erupt on the surface to solidify as andesite. But you are unlikely to get a homogeneous magma or rock. This is because of the profound differences in the properties of silicic and mafic magmas, most

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C

FIGURE 11.20 Assimilation. Magma formed is intermediate in composition between the original magma and the absorbed country rock. (A) Ascending magma breaks off blocks of country rock (the process is called stoping). (B) Xenoliths of country rock with melting temperatures lower than the magma melt. (C) The molten country rock blends with the original magma, leaving unmelted portions as inclusions.

notably their respective temperature differences. The mafic magma likely has a temperature of over 1,100°C, whereas a silicic magma would likely be several hundred degrees cooler. The mafic magma would be quickly cooled and most of it would solidify when the two magmas meet. Some of the mafic minerals would react with the silicic magma and be absorbed in it, but most of the mafic magma would become blobs of basalt or gabbro included in the more silicic magma. Overall the pluton would have an average chemical composition that is intermediate, but the rock that forms would not be a homogeneous intermediate rock. Because of this, magma mingling might be a better term for the process.

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EXPLAINING IGNEOUS ACTIVITY BY PLATE TECTONICS

Silicic magma moving slowly upward

One of the appealing aspects of the theory of plate tectonics is that it accounts reasonably well for the variety of igneous rocks and their distribution patterns. (Chapter 1 has an overview of plate tectonics.) Divergent boundaries are associated with creation of basalt and gabbro of the oceanic crust. Andesite and granite are associated with convergent boundaries. Table 11.2 summarizes the relationships.

Mafic magma moving rapidly upward A

Igneous Processes at Divergent Boundaries

Some mafic material crystallizes in silicic magma

B

Silicic magma Intermediate, partially solidified magma Solid mafic rock

C

FIGURE 11.21 Mixing of magmas. (A) Two bodies of magma moving surfaceward. (B) The mafic magma catches up with the silicic magma. (C) An inhomogeneous mixture of silicic, intermediate, and mafic material.

TABLE 11.2

293

The crust beneath the world’s oceans (over 70% of Earth’s surface) is mafic volcanic and intrusive rock, covered to a varying extent by sediment and sedimentary rock. Most of this basalt and gabbro was created at mid-oceanic ridges, which also are divergent plate boundaries. Geologists agree that the mafic magma produced at divergent boundaries is due to partial melting of the asthenosphere. The asthenosphere, as described in chapter 1, is the plastic zone of the mantle beneath the rigid lithosphere (the upper mantle and crust that make up a plate). Along divergent boundaries, the asthenosphere is relatively close (5 to 10 kilometers) to the surface (figure 11.22). The probable reason the asthenosphere is plastic or “soft” is that temperatures there are only slightly lower than the temperatures required for partial melting of mantle rock. If extra heat is added, or pressure is reduced, partial melting should take place. The asthenosphere beneath divergent boundaries probably is mantle material that has welled upward from deeper levels of the mantle. As the hot asthenosphere gets close to the surface, decrease in pressure results in partial melting. In other words, decompression melting takes place. The magma that forms is mafic and will solidify as basalt or gabbro.

Relationships between Rock Types and Their Usual Plate Tectonic Setting

Rock

Original Magma

Final Magma

Processes

Plate Tectonic Setting

Basalt and gabbro

Mafic

Mafic

Partial melting of mantle (asthenosphere)

Andesite and diorite

Mafic (usually)

Intermediate

Granite and rhyolite

Silicic

Silicic

Partial melting of mantle (asthenosphere) followed by: • differentiation or • assimilation or • magma mixing Partial melting of lower crust

1. Divergent boundary—oceanic crust created 2. Intraplate • plateau basalt • volcanic island chains (e.g., Hawaii) Convergent boundary

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1. Convergent boundary 2. Intraplate • over mantle plume

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Fissure through the crust

Magma with solid mafic minerals

Older basalt Older gabbro Lithosphere

A

Older ultramafic rock

Partial Partial melting melting

Hot asthenosphere rock moves upward Asthenosphere

Some magma erupts on the ocean floor

Younger

Magma solidifies to basalt (gabbro at depth)

basalt

Older basalt Younger

Older basalt

Intraplate Igneous Activity Igneous activity within a plate, a long distance from a plate boundary, is unusual. These “hot spots” have been hypothesized to be due to hot mantle plumes, which are narrow upwellings of hot material within the mantle. Examples include the long-lasting volcanic activity that built the Hawaiian Islands and the eruptions at Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming. The ongoing eruptions in Hawaii take place on oceanic crust, whereas eruptions at Yellowstone represent continental intraplate activity. The silicic eruptions at Yellowstone that took place some 600,000 years ago were much larger and more violent than any eruptions that have occurred in historical time. The huge volume of mafic magma that erupted to form the Columbia plateau basalts of Washington and Oregon (described in chapter 10) is attributed to a past hot mantle plume, according to a recent hypothesis (figure 11.23). In this case, the large volume of basalt is due to the arrival beneath the lithosphere and decompression melting of a mantle plume with a large head on it.

gabbro Older gabbro

Older gabbro

Solid residue becomes ultramafic rock B

Oceanic crust

ridge of much of its calcium, aluminum, and silicon oxides. The unmelted residue (olivine and pyroxene) becomes depleted mantle, but it is still a variety of ultramafic rock. The rigid ultramafic rock, the overlying gabbro and basalt, and any sediment that may have deposited on the basalt collectively are the lithosphere of an oceanic plate, which moves away from a spreading center over the asthenosphere. (The nature of the oceanic crust is described in more detail in chapter 3.)

Older ultramafic rock (mantle)

Basalt floods

Continental lithosphere bulged upward and thinned

Partial melting

FIGURE 11.22 Schematic representation of how basaltic oceanic crust and the underlying ultramafic mantle rock form at a divergent boundary. The process is more continuous than the two-step diagram implies. (A) Partial melting of asthenosphere takes place beneath a mid-oceanic ridge and magma rises into a magma chamber. (B) The magma squeezes into the fissure system. Solid mafic minerals are left behind as ultramafic rock.

The portion that did not melt remains behind as a silicadepleted, iron-and-magnesium-enriched ultramafic rock. Some of the basaltic magma erupts along a sub marine ridge to form pillow basalts (described in chapter 10), while some fills near-surface fissures to create dikes. Deeper down, magma solidifies more slowly into gabbro. The newly solidified rock is pulled apart by spreading plates; more magma fills the new fracture and some erupts on the sea floor. The process is repeated, resulting in a continuous production of mafic crust. The basalt magma that builds the oceanic crust is removed from the underlying mantle, depleting the mantle beneath the

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Large head of newly arrived mantle plume

Hot, solid mantle rising from base of mantle

FIGURE 11.23 A hot mantle plume with a large head rises from the lower mantle. When it reaches the base of the lithosphere, it uplifts and stretches the overlying lithosphere. The reduced pressure results in decompression melting, producing basaltic magma. Large volumes of magma travel through fissures and flood the Earth’s surface.

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The Origin of Andesite

Igneous Processes at Convergent Boundaries

Magma for most of our andesitic composite volcanoes (such as those found along the west coast of the Americas) seems to originate from a depth of about 100 kilometers. This coincides with the depth at which the subducted oceanic plate is sliding under the asthenosphere (figure 11.24). Partial melting of the asthenosphere takes place, resulting in a mafic magma. In most cases, melting occurs because the subducted oceanic crust releases water into the asthenosphere. The water collected in

Intermediate and silicic magmas are clearly related to the convergence of two plates and subduction. However, exactly what takes place is debated by geologists. Compared to divergent boundaries, there is less agreement about how magmas are generated at convergent boundaries. The scenarios that follow are currently regarded by geologists to be the best explanations of the data. Sea level

295

Trench

Folded and faulted sedimentary rock Oceanic crust Intermediate magma

Basalt and gabbro

OCEANIC LITHOSPHERE

Continental crust

Granitic plutons emplaced Silicic magma

Lithospheric mantle Partial melting of continental crust Mantle (asthenosphere)

Kilometers

CONTINENTAL LITHOSPHERE

Mafic magma Lithospheric mantle 100 Mantle (asthenosphere)

1100 C 1200 C 00

12

Zone where wet mantle partially melts

C 0

0 11 C

Water from subducting crust

FIGURE 11.24 Generation of magma at a convergent boundary. Mafic magma is generated in the asthenosphere above the subducting oceanic lithosphere, and silicic magma is created in the lower crust. The insert shows the circulation of asthenosphere and lines of equal temperature (isotherms). Partial melting of “wet” ultramafic rock takes place in the zone where it is between 1100 and 1200°C.

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the oceanic crust when it was beneath the ocean and is driven out as the descending plate is heated. The water lowers the melting temperature of the ultramafic rocks in this part of the mantle. Partial melting produces a mafic magma. But how can we keep producing magma from ultramafic rock after those rocks have been depleted of the constituents of the mafic magma? The answer is that hot asthenospheric rock continues to flow into the zone of partial melting. As shown in figure 11.24, asthenospheric ultramafic rock is dragged downward by the descending lithospheric slab. More ultramafic rock flows laterally to replace the descending material. A continuous flow of hot, “fertile” (containing the constituents of basalt) ultramafic rock is brought into the zone where water, moving upward from the descending slab, lowers the melting temperature. After being depleted of basaltic magma, the solid, residual, ultramafic rock continues to sink deeper into the mantle. On its slow journey through the crust, the mafic magma evolves into an intermediate magma by differentiation and by assimilation of silicic crustal rocks. Under special circumstances basalt of the descending oceanic crust can partially melt to yield an intermediate magma. In most subduction zones, the basalt remains too cool to melt, even at a depth of over 100 kilometers. But, geologists believe that partial melting of the subducted crust produces the magma for andesitic volcanoes in South America. Here, the oceanic crust is much younger and considerably hotter than normal. The spreading axis where it was created is not far from the trench. Because the lithosphere has not traveled far before being subducted, it is still relatively hot. As can be seen from figure 11.25, subduction is at a shallower angle, because this hotter crust is more buoyant than the usual case (as in figure 11.24). The reason that partial melting of subducted basalt is unusual is that this kind of subduction and magma generation

Sea level

is, geologically speaking, short-lived. Subduction will end when the overriding plate crashes into the mid-oceanic ridge. Most subduction zones are a long distance from the divergent boundaries of their plates, so steep subduction and magma production from the asthenosphere are the norm.

The Origin of Granite To explain the great volumes of granitic plutonic rocks, many geologists think that partial melting of the lower continental crust must take place. The continental crust contains the high amount of silica needed for a silicic magma. As the silicic rocks of the continental crust have relatively low melting temperatures (especially if water is present), partial melting of the lower continental crust is likely. However, calculations indicate that the temperatures we would expect from a normal geothermal gradient are too low for melting to take place. Therefore, we need an additional heat source. Currently, geologists think that the additional heat is provided by mafic magma that was generated in the asthenosphere and moved upward. The process of magmatic underplating involves mafic magma pooling at the base of the continental crust, supplying the extra heat necessary to partially melt the overlying, silica-rich crustal rocks (figure 11.26). Mafic magma generated in the asthenosphere rises to the base of the crust. The mafic magma is denser than the overlying silica-rich crust; therefore, it collects as a liquid mass that is much hotter than the crust. The continental crust becomes heated (as if by a giant hotplate). When the temperature of the lower crust rises sufficiently, partial melting takes place, creating silicic magma. The silicic magma collects and forms diapirs, which rise to a higher level in the crust and solidify as granitic plutons (or, on occasion, reach the surface and erupt violently).

Trench

Divergent boundary Andesite Volcano volcano Oceanic crust

Continental crust Metamorphosed basalt Basalt and gabbro

Up

per

-ma

ntle

Intermediate magma lith

osp

her

e

Upper-mantle asthenosphere 0

100 km

Continental lithosphere Shallow subduction angle Upper-mantle asthenosphere

Partial melting of basaltic crust

FIGURE 11.25 Young, hot, oceanic lithosphere is buoyant and subducts at a shallower angle than normal. Direct, partial melting of basalt in the subducting slab takes place to form intermediate magma. Basalt partially melts when it is heated further by the overlying asthenosphere.

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Rising diapir of granitic magma

Continental crust Heating of lower crust and partial melting

Underplating by mafic magma Lithospheric mantle

Subduction Asthenosphere

FIGURE 11.26 How mafic magma could add heat to the lower crust and result in partial melting to form a granitic magma. Mafic magma from the asthenosphere rises to underplate the continental crust.

Summary The interaction between the internal and external forces of the Earth is illustrated by the rock cycle, a conceptual device relating igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks to each other, to surficial processes such as weathering and erosion, and to internal processes such as tectonic forces. Changes take place when one or more processes force Earth’s material out of equilibrium. Igneous rocks form from solidification of magma. If the rock forms at the Earth’s surface it is extrusive. Intrusive rocks are igneous rocks that formed underground. Some intrusive rocks have solidified near the surface as a direct result of volcanic activity. Volcanic necks solidified within volcanoes. Finegrained dikes and sills may also have formed in cracks during local extrusive activity. A sill is concordant—parallel to the planes within the country rock. A dike is discordant—not parallel to planes in the country rock. Both are tabular bodies. Coarser grains in either a dike or a sill indicate that it probably formed at considerable depth. Most intrusive rock is plutonic—that is, coarse-grained rock that solidified slowly at considerable depth. Most plutonic rock exposed at the Earth’s surface is in batholiths—large plutonic bodies. A smaller body is called a stock. Silicic (or felsic) rocks are rich in silica, whereas mafic rocks are silica-poor. Most igneous rocks are named on the basis of their mineral content, which in turn reflects the chemical composition of the magmas from which they formed, and on

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grain sizes. Granite, diorite, and gabbro are the coarse-grained equivalents of rhyolite, andesite, and basalt, respectively. Peridotite is an ultramafic rock made entirely of ferromagnesian minerals and is mostly associated with the mantle. Basalt and gabbro are predominant in the oceanic crust. Granite predominates in the continental crust. Younger granite batholiths occur mostly within younger mountain belts. Andesite is largely restricted to narrow zones along convergent plate boundaries. The geothermal gradient is the increase in temperature with increase in depth. Hot mantle plumes and magma at shallow depths in volcanic regions locally raise the geothermal gradient. No single process can satisfactorily account for all igneous rocks. In the process of differentiation, based on Bowen’s reaction series, a residual magma more silicic than the original mafic magma is created when the early-forming minerals separate out of the magma. In assimilation, a hot, original magma is contaminated by picking up and absorbing rock of a different composition. Partial melting of the mantle usually produces basaltic magma, whereas granitic magma is most likely produced by partial melting of the lower continental crust. The theory of plate tectonics incorporates the preceding concepts. Basalt is generated where hot mantle rock partially melts, most notably along divergent boundaries. The fluid magma rises easily through fissures, if present. The ferromagnesian portion that stays solid remains in the mantle as ultramafic rock. Granite and andesite are associated with subduction. Differentiation, assimilation, and partial melting may each play a part in creating the observed variety of rocks.

Terms to Remember andesite 283 basalt 283 batholith 286 Bowen’s reaction series 289 chill zone 279 coarse-grained (coarsely crystalline) rock 279 contact 278 country rock 278 crystal settling 290 decompression melting 288 diapir 286 differentiation 290 dike 285 diorite 283 extrusive rock 278 fine-grained rock 279 gabbro 283 geothermal gradient 288 granite 278 igneous rock 278

intermediate rock or magma 284 intrusion (intrusive structure) 284 intrusive rock 278 lava 278 mafic rock or magma 283 magma 278 mantle plume 294 peridotite 284 pluton 286 plutonic rock 279 porphyritic 279 rhyolite 283 rock 276 rock cycle 276 silicic (felsic) rock or magma 284 sill 285 stock 286 texture 279 ultramafic rock 284 volcanic neck 284 xenolith 279

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Testing Your Knowledge Use the following questions to prepare for exams based on this chapter.

19. The most common igneous rock of the continents is a. basalt

b. granite

c. rhyolite

d. ultramafic

20. Granitic magmas are associated with

1. Why do mafic magmas tend to reach the surface much more often than silicic magmas?

a. convergent boundaries and magmatic underplating

2. What role does the asthenosphere play in generating magma at (a) a convergent boundary; (b) a divergent boundary?

c. convergent boundaries and decompression melting

3. How do batholiths form? 4. How would you distinguish, on the basis of minerals present, among granite, gabbro, and diorite?

b. divergent boundaries and differentiation d. divergent boundaries and water release 21. The difference in texture between intrusive and extrusive rocks is primarily due to a. different mineralogy

5. How would you distinguish andesite from a diorite?

b. different rates of cooling and crystallization

6. What rock would probably form if magma that was feeding volcanoes above subduction zones solidified at considerable depth?

c. different amounts of water in the magma

7. Why is a higher temperature required to form magma at the oceanic ridges than in the continental crust? 8. What is the difference between feldspar found in gabbro and feldspar found in granite? 9. What is the difference between a dike and a sill? 10. Describe the differences between the continuous and the discontinuous branches of Bowen’s reaction series.

22. Mafic magma is generated at divergent boundaries because of a. water under pressure

b. decompression melting

c. magmatic underplating

d. melting of the lithosphere

23. A change in magma composition due to melting of surrounding country rock is called a. magma mixing

b. assimilation

c. crystal setting

d. partial melting

11. A surface separating different rock types is called a a. xenolith

b. contact

c. chill zone

d. none of the preceding

12. The major difference between intrusive igneous rocks and extrusive igneous rocks is a. where they solidify

b. chemical composition

c. type of minerals

d. all of the preceding

13. Which is not an intrusive igneous rock? a. gabbro

b. diorite

c. granite

d. andesite

14. By definition, stocks differ from batholiths in a. size

b. shape

c. chemical composition

d. all of the preceding

15. Which is not a source of heat for melting rock? a. geothermal gradient

b. the hotter mantle

c. mantle plumes

d. water under pressure

16. The geothermal gradient is, on the average, about a. 1°C/km

b. 10°C/km

c. 30°C/km

d. 50°C/km

17. The continuous branch of Bowen’s reaction series contains the mineral a. pyroxene

b. plagioclase

c. amphibole

d. biotite

Expanding Your Knowledge 1. In parts of major mountain belts there are sequences of rocks that geologists interpret as slices of ancient oceanic lithosphere. Assuming that such a sequence formed at a divergent boundary and was moved toward a convergent boundary by plate motion, what rock types would you expect to make up this sequence, going from the top downward? 2. What would happen, according to Bowen’s reaction series, under the following circumstances: olivine crystals form and only the surface of each crystal reacts with the melt to form a coating of pyroxene that prevents the interior of olivine from reacting with the melt?

Exploring Web Resources www.mhhe.com/carlson9e McGraw-Hill’s website for Physical Geology: Earth Revealed 9th edition features a wide variety of study aids, such as animations, quizzes, answers to the end-of-chapter multiple choice questions, additional readings and Google Earth exercises, Internet exercises, and much more. The URLs listed in this book are given as links in chapter web pages, making it easy to go to a website without typing in its URL.

18. The discontinuous branch of Bowen’s reaction series contains the mineral a. pyroxene

b. amphibole

c. biotite

d. all of the preceding

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www.mhhe.com/carlson9e http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~rmr/ Rob’s Granite Page. This site has a lot of information on granite and related igneous activity. The site is useful for people new to geology as well as for professionals. There are numerous images of granite. Click on “Did you know that granite is like ice cream?” for an interesting comparison. The page also has photos of various granites and links to other sites that have more images. www.geosci.unc.edu/Petunia/IgMetAtlas/mainmenu.html Atlas of Rocks, Minerals, and Textures (from University of North Carolina). This site contains some photomicrographs of plutonic and volcanic rocks. The images are thin sections (slices of rock so thin that most minerals are transparent) seen in a polarizing microscope. Most images are taken from cross-polarized light, which causes many minerals to appear in distinctive, bright colors. For some of the rocks (gabbro, for instance), you can also see what they look like under plain polarized light by clicking the circle with the horizontal, gray lines.

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http://seis.natsci.csulb.edu/basicgeo/IGNEOUS_TOUR.html Igneous Rocks Tour. This site has some hand specimen images of common igneous rocks and should provide a useful review for rock identification. www.gpc.edu/~pgore/stonemtn/text.html Stone Mountain, Georgia, Virtual Field Trip. Stone Mountain is an exposure of granite in Georgia that is a famous landmark. Begin by reading the geologic summary, then take the virtual tour.

Animation This chapter includes the following animation on the book’s website at www.mhhe.com/carlson9e. 11.24 How subduction causes volcanism

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H

A

P

T

E

R

12 Weathering and Soil Weathering, Erosion, and Transportation Weathering and Earth Systems Atmosphere Hydrosphere Biosphere

How Weathering Changes Rocks Effects of Weathering Mechanical Weathering Pressure Release Frost Action Other Processes

Chemical Weathering Role of Oxygen Role of Acids Solution Weathering Chemical Weathering of Feldspar Chemical Weathering of Other Minerals Weathering Products Factors Affecting Weathering

Soil Soil Horizons Factors Affecting Soil Formation Soil Erosion Soil Classification

Summary

I

n this chapter, you will study several visible signs of weathering in the world around you, ranging from the cliffs and slopes of the Grand Canyon to the rounded edges of boulders. As you study these features, keep in mind that weathering processes make the planet suitable for human habitation. The weathering of rock affects the composition of Earth’s atmosphere, helping to maintain a habitable climate. Weathering also produces soils, upon which grow the forests, grasslands, and agriculture of the world. How does rock weather? You learned in chapters 10 and 11 that the minerals making up igneous rocks crystallize at relatively high temperatures and sometimes at Differential weathering and erosion at Bryce Canyon National Park in Utah has produced spires in the sandstone beds. Photo © Doug Sherman

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Rocks exposed at Earth’s surface are constantly being changed by water, air, varying temperature, and other environmental factors. Granite may seem indestructible, but given time and exposure to air and water, it can decompose and disintegrate into soil. The processes that affect rock are weathering, erosion, and transportation. The term weathering refers to the processes that change the physical and chemical character of rock at or near the surface. For example, if you abandon a car, particularly in a wet climate, eventually the paint will flake off and the metal will rust. The car weathers. Similarly, the tightly bound crystals of any rock can be loosened and altered to new minerals when exposed to air and water during weathering. Weathering breaks down rocks that are either stationary or moving. Erosion is the picking up or physical removal of rock particles by an agent such as running water or glaciers. Weathering helps break down a solid rock into loose particles that are easily eroded. Rainwater flowing down a cliff or hillside removes the loose particles produced by weathering. Similarly, if you sandblast rust off of a car, erosion takes place. After a rock fragment is picked up (eroded), it is transported. Transportation is the movement of eroded particles by agents such as rivers, waves, glaciers, or wind. Weathering processes continue during transportation. A boulder being transported by a stream can be physically worn down and chemically altered as it is carried along by the water. In the car analogy, transportation would take place when a stream of rust-bearing water flows away from a car in which rust is being hosed off.

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Sediment

Weathering and erosion

Solidification

ism

WEATHERING, EROSION, AND TRANSPORTATION

IGNEOUS ROCK

Metamorph

high pressures as magma and lava cool. Although these minerals are stable when they form, most of them are not stable during prolonged exposure at the surface. In this chapter, you see how minerals and rocks change when they are subjected to the physical and chemical conditions existing at the surface. Rocks undergo mechanical weathering (physical disintegration) and chemical weathering (decomposition) as they are attacked by air, water, and microorganisms. Your knowledge of the chemical composition and atomic structure of minerals will help you understand the reactions that occur during chemical weathering. Weathering processes create sediments (primarily mud and sand) and soil. Sedimentary rocks, which form from sediments, are discussed in chapter 14. In a general sense, weathering prepares rocks for erosion and is a fundamental part of the rock cycle, transforming rocks into the raw material that eventually becomes sedimentary rocks. Through weathering, there are important links between the rock cycle and the atmosphere and biosphere.

Magma

Lithification

SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Partial melting

METAMORPHIC ROCK Metamorphism

Rock in mantle

WEATHERING AND EARTH SYSTEMS Atmosphere Our atmosphere is crucial to the processes of weathering. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are important for chemical weathering, as described later. Water (evaporated from the hydrosphere and distributed as moisture, rain, and snow) is critical to both chemical weathering and mechanical weathering. Weathering has also had a dramatic impact on the composition of Earth’s atmosphere. Chemical weathering removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, allowing it to be transformed into limestone and stored in the crust. Without chemical weathering, the elevated levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would have long ago made Earth too hot to sustain life.

Hydrosphere Water is necessary for chemical weathering to take place. Oxygen dissolved in water oxidizes iron in rocks. Carbon dioxide mixed with water makes a weak acid that causes most minerals to decompose; this acid is the primary cause of chemical weathering. Running water contributes to weathering and erosion by loosening and removing particles and by abrading rocks during transportation in streams. Ice in glaciers is a very effective agent of erosion as rocks frozen in the base of a glacier grind down the underlying bedrock. Freezing and thawing of water in cracks in rock is also very effective at mechanically breaking them up.

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Biosphere Plants can physically break apart rocks when they grow in cracks. Animals can also contribute to weathering and erosion. You may notice how hillsides have many paths compacted by the hooves of grazing cattle or sheep. Humans, of course, are awesome agents of erosion. A single pass by a bulldozer can do more to change a landscape than thousands of years of natural weathering and erosion. Plants and animals contribute greatly to weathering when they die. When animals and plants decompose, they become mostly water and carbon dioxide. While carbon dioxide dissolved in rain makes the water slightly acidic, soil water is much more acidic due to the carbon dioxide provided by decaying plants and the respiration of soil organisms. Soil, necessary for plant growth is formed by weathering and includes organic matter from decayed plants. Organic carbon compounds and minerals released by weathering provide the nutrients required for plant growth.

A

HOW WEATHERING CHANGES ROCKS Rocks undergo both mechanical weathering and chemical weathering. Mechanical weathering (physical disintegration) includes several processes that break rock into smaller pieces. The change in the rock is physical; there is little or no chemical change. For example, water freezing and expanding in cracks can cause rocks to disintegrate physically. Chemical weathering is the decomposition of rock from exposure to water and atmospheric gases (principally carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water vapor). As rock is decomposed by these agents, new chemical compounds form. Mechanical weathering breaks up rock but does not change the composition. A large mass of granite may be broken into smaller pieces by frost action, but its original crystals of quartz, feldspar, and ferromagnesian minerals are unchanged. On the other hand, if the granite is being chemically weathered, some of the original minerals are chemically changed into different minerals. Feldspar, for example, will change into a clay mineral (with a crystal structure similar to mica). In nature, mechanical and chemical weathering usually occur together, and the effects are interrelated. Weathering is a relatively long, slow process. Typically, cracks in rock are enlarged gradually by frost action or plant growth (as roots pry into rock crevices), and as a result, more surfaces are exposed to attack by chemical agents. Chemical weathering initially works along contacts between mineral grains. Tightly bound crystals are loosened as weathering products form at their contacts. Mechanical and chemical weathering then proceed together, until a once tough rock slowly crumbles into individual grains. Solid minerals are not the only products of chemical weathering. Some minerals—calcite, for example—dissolve when chemically weathered. We can expect limestone and marble,

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B

FIGURE 12.1 (A) The effects of chemical weathering are obvious in the marble gravestone on the right but not in the slate gravestone on the left, which still retains its detail. Both gravestones date to the 1780s. (B) This marble statue has lost most of the fine detail on the face and the baby’s head has been dissolved by chemical weathering. Photo A by C. C. Plummer; photo B by David McGeary

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rocks consisting mainly of calcite, to weather chemically in quite a different way than granite.

EFFECTS OF WEATHERING The results of chemical weathering are easy to find. Look along the edges or corners of old stone structures for evidence. The inscriptions on statues and gravestones that have stood for several decades may no longer be sharp (figure 12.1). Building blocks of limestone or marble exposed to rain and atmospheric gases may show solution effects of chemical weathering in a surprisingly short time. Granite and slate gravestones and building materials are much more resistant to weathering due to the strong silicon-oxygen bonds in the silicate minerals. However, after centuries, the mineral grains in granite may be loosened, cracks enlarged, and the surface discolored and dulled by the products of weathering. Surface discoloration is also common on rock outcrops, where rock is exposed to view, with no plant or soil cover. That is why field geologists carry rock hammers —to break rocks to examine unweathered surfaces. We tend to think of weathering as destructive because it mars statues and building fronts. As rock is destroyed, however, valuable products can be created. Soil is produced by rock weathering, so most plants depend on weathering for the soil

they need in order to grow. In a sense, then, all agriculture depends on weathering. Weathering products transported to the sea by rivers as dissolved solids make seawater salty and serve as nutrients for many marine organisms. Some metallic ores, such as those of copper and aluminum, are concentrated into economic deposits by chemical weathering. Many weathered rocks display interesting shapes. Spheroidal weathering occurs where rock has been rounded by weathering from an initial blocky shape. It is rounded because chemical weathering acts more rapidly or intensely on the corners and edges of a rock than on the smooth rock faces (figure 12.2). Differential weathering describes the tendency for different types of rock to weather at different rates. For example, shale (composed of soft clay minerals) tends to weather and erode much faster than sandstone (composed of hard quartz mineral). Figure 12.3 shows a striking example of differential weathering. Figure 12.4 illustrates how layers of resistant rock tend to weather to form steep cliffs while softer layers form shallow slopes of eroded rock debris.

MECHANICAL WEATHERING Of the many processes that cause rocks to disintegrate, the most effective are pressure release and frost action.

B

C A

FIGURE 12.2 (A) Water penetrating along cracks at right angles to one another in an igneous rock produces spheroidal weathering of once-angular blocks. The increase in surface area exposed by the cracks increases chemical weathering. (B) Because of the increased surface area, chemical weathering attacks edges and particularly the corners more rapidly than the flat faces, creating the spheroidal shape shown in (C). (D) Newly eroded granite block with rounded corners contrasted with extensively weathered, spheroidal granite boulder, Acadia National Park, Maine. Photo by Bret Bennington

D

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Pressure Release The reduction of pressure on a body of rock can cause it to crack as it expands; pressure release is a significant type of mechanical weathering. A large mass of rock, such as a batholith, originally forms under great pressure from the weight of several kilometers of rock above it. This batholith is gradually exposed by tectonic uplift of the region followed by erosion of the overlying rock (figure 12.5). The removal of the great weight of rock above the batholith, usually termed unloading, allows the granite to expand upward. Cracks called sheet joints develop parallel to the outer surface of the rock as the outer part of the rock expands more than the inner part (figure 12.5A and B). On slopes, gravity may cause the rock between such joints to break loose in concentric slabs from the underlying granite mass. This process of spalling off of rock layers is called exfoliation; it is somewhat similar to peeling layers from an onion. Exfoliation domes (figure 12.6) are large, rounded landforms developed in massive rock, such as granite, by exfoliation. Some famous examples of exfoliation domes include Stone Mountain in Georgia and Half Dome in Yosemite.

Resistant sandstone

FIGURE 12.3 Pedestal rock near Lees Ferry, Arizona. Resistant sandstone cap protects weak shale pedestal from weathering and erosion. Hammer for scale is barely visible at base of pedestal. Photo by David McGeary

Shale

Hammer

Geologist’s View

Frost Action Did you ever leave a bottle of water in the freezer, coming back later to find the water frozen and the bottle burst open? When water freezes at 0°C (32°F), the individual water molecules jumbled together in the liquid align into an ordered crystal structure, forming ice. Because the crystal structure of ice takes up more space than the liquid, water expands 9% in volume when it freezes. This unique property makes water a potent agent of mechanical weathering in any climate where the temperature falls below freezing. Frost action—the mechanical effect of freezing water on rocks—commonly occurs as frost wedging or frost heaving. In frost wedging, the expansion of freezing water pries rock apart. Most rock contains a system of cracks called joints, caused by the slow flexing of brittle rock by deep-seated Earth forces (see chapter 6). Water that has trickled into a joint in a rock can freeze and expand when the temperature drops below 0°C (32°F). The expanding ice wedges the rock apart, extending the joint or even breaking the rock into pieces (figure 12.7). Frost wedging is most effective in areas with many days of freezing and thawing (mountaintops and midlatitude regions with pronounced seasons). Partial thawing during the day adds new water to the ice in the crack; refreezing at night adds new ice to the old ice. Frost heaving lifts rock and soil vertically. Solid rock conducts heat faster than soil, so on a cold winter day, the bottom of a partially buried rock will be much colder than soil at the same depth. As the ground freezes in winter, ice forms first under large rock fragments in the soil. The expanding ice layers push boulders out of the ground, a process well known to New England farmers and other residents of rocky soils. Frost

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FIGURE 12.4 Sedimentary rocks in the Grand Canyon, Arizona. In the foreground, layers of sandstone resist weathering and form steep cliffs. Less resistant layers of shale weather to form gentler slopes of talus between cliffs. Photo by David McGeary

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Several kilometers

Batholith

A Sheet joints

FIGURE 12.6 Half Dome in Yosemite National Park, California is an example of an exfoliation dome. Note the onion-like layers of rock that are peeling off the dome, and the climbers on a cable ladder for scale. Photo © by Dean Conger/CORBIS

Exfoliation

Exfoliation

Expansion

Uplift and erosion of region B

C

FIGURE 12.5 Sheet joints caused by pressure release. A granite batholith (A) is exposed by regional uplift followed by the erosion of the overlying rock (B). Unloading reduces pressure on the granite and causes outward expansion. Sheet joints are closely spaced at the surface where expansion is greatest. Exfoliation of rock layers produces rounded exfoliation domes. (C) Sheet joints in a granite outcrop near the top of the Sierra Nevada, California. The granite formed several kilometers below the surface and expanded outward when it was exposed by uplift and erosion. Photo by David McGeary

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heaving bulges the ground surface upward in winter, breaking up roads and leaving lawns spongy and misshapen after the spring thaw.

Other Processes Several other processes mechanically weather rock but in most environments are less effective than frost action and pressure release. Plant growth, particularly roots growing in cracks (figure 12.8A), can break up rocks, as can burrowing animals. Such activities help to speed up chemical weathering by enlarging passageways for water and air. Extreme changes in temperature, as in a desert environment (figure 12.8B) or in a forest fire, can cause a rock to expand until it cracks. The pressure of salt crystals formed as water evaporates inside small spaces in rock also helps to disintegrate desert rocks. Whatever processes of mechanical weathering are at work, as rocks disintegrate into smaller fragments, the total surface area increases (figure 12.9), allowing more extensive chemical weathering by water and air.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING The processes of chemical weathering, or rock decomposition, transform rocks and minerals exposed to water and air into new chemical products. A mineral that crystallized deep underground from a water-deficient magma may eventually be exposed at the surface, where it can react with the abundant water there to form a new, different mineral. A mineral containing very little oxygen may react with oxygen in the air,

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Frost wedging

A

A

B

FIGURE 12.7 (A) Frost wedging occurs when water fills joints (cracks) in a rock and then freezes. The expanding ice wedges the rock apart. (B) Frost wedging has broken the rock and sculpted Crawford Mountain in Banff National Park, Alberta, Canada. The broken rock forms cone-shaped piles of debris (talus) at the base of the mountains. Photo B © Martin G. Miller/Visuals Unlimited

extracting oxygen atoms from the atmosphere and incorporating them into its own crystal structure, thus forming a different mineral. These new minerals are weathering products. They have adjusted to physical and chemical conditions at (or near) Earth’s surface. Minerals change gradually at the surface until they come into equilibrium, or balance, with the surrounding conditions.

B

FIGURE 12.8 (A) Tree roots will pry this rock apart as they grow within the rock joints, Sierra Nevada Mountains, California. (B) This rock is being broken by the extreme temperature variation in a desert, Mojave Desert, California. Note the tremendous increase in surface area that results from the rock being split into layers. Photo A by Diane Carlson; photo B by Crystal Hootman and Diane Carlson

Role of Oxygen Oxygen is abundant in the atmosphere and quite active chemically, so it often combines with minerals or with elements within minerals that are exposed at Earth’s surface.

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6 square meters of surface area

12 square meters

1m 1m

0.5 m

0.25 m

FIGURE 12.9 Mechanical weathering can increase the surface area of a rock, accelerating the rate of chemical weathering. As a cube breaks up into smaller pieces, its volume remains the same, but its surface area increases.

The rusting of an iron nail exposed to air is a simple example of chemical weathering. Oxygen from the atmosphere combines with the iron to form iron oxide, the reaction being expressed as follows:

FIGURE 12.10 Sandstone has been colored red by hematite, released by the chemical weathering of ferromagnesian minerals, Thermopolis, Wyoming. Photo by Diane Carlson

4Fe3 3O2 → 2Fe2O3 iron oxygen → iron oxide Iron oxide formed in this way is a weathering product of numerous minerals containing iron, such as the ferromagnesian group (pyroxenes, amphiboles, biotite, and olivine). The iron in the ferromagnesian silicate minerals must first be separated from the silica in the crystal structure before it can oxidize. The iron oxide (Fe2O3) formed is the mineral hematite, which has a brick-red color when powdered. If water is present, as it usually is at Earth’s surface, the iron oxide combines with water to form limonite, which is the name for a group of mostly amorphous, hydrated iron oxides (often including the mineral goethite), which are yellowish-brown when powdered. The general formula for this group is Fe2O3 ⋅ nH2O (the n represents a small, whole number such as 1, 2, or 3 to show a variable amount of water). The brown, yellow, or red color of soil and many kinds of sedimentary rock is commonly the result of small amounts of hematite and limonite released by the weathering of iron-containing minerals (figure 12.10).

structure. The mineral decomposes, often into a different mineral, when it is exposed to acid. Some strong acids occur naturally on Earth’s surface, but they are relatively rare. Sulfuric acid is a strong acid emitted during many volcanic eruptions. It can kill trees and cause intense chemical weathering of rocks near volcanic vents. The bubbling mud of Yellowstone National Park’s mudpots (figure 12.11) is produced by rapid weathering caused by acidic sulfur gases that are given off by some hot springs. Strong acids also

Role of Acids The most effective agent of chemical weathering is acid. Acids are chemical compounds that give off hydrogen ions (H) when they dissociate, or break down, in water. Strong acids produce a great number of hydrogen ions when they dissociate, and weak acids produce relatively few such ions. The hydrogen ions given off by natural acids disrupt the orderly arrangement of atoms within most minerals. Because a hydrogen ion has a positive electrical charge and a very small size, it can substitute for other positive ions (such as Ca, Na, or K) within minerals. This substitution changes the chemical composition of the mineral and disrupts its atomic

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FIGURE 12.11 A mudpot of boiling mud is created by intense chemical weathering of the surrounding rock by the acid gases dissolved in a hot spring, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Photo by David McGeary

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drain from some mines as sulfur-containing minerals such as pyrite oxidize and form acids at the surface (figure 12.12). Uncontrolled mine drainage can kill fish and plants downstream and accelerate rock weathering. The most important natural source of acid for rock weathering at Earth’s surface is dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) in water. Water and carbon dioxide form carbonic acid (H2CO3), a weak acid that dissociates into the hydrogen ion and the bicarbonate ion (see equation A in table 12.1). Even though carbonic acid is a weak acid, it is so abundant at Earth’s surface that it is the single most effective agent of chemical weathering. Earth’s atmosphere (mostly nitrogen and oxygen) contains 0.03% carbon dioxide. Some of this carbon dioxide dissolves in rain as it falls, so most rain is slightly acidic when it hits the ground. Large amounts of carbon dioxide also dissolve in water that percolates through soil. The openings in soil are filled with a gas mixture that differs from air. Soil gas has a much higher content of carbon dioxide (up to 10%) than does air, because carbon dioxide is produced by the decay of organic matter and the respiration of soil organisms in the biosphere, such as

309

worms. Rainwater that has trickled through soil is therefore usually acidic and readily attacks minerals in the unweathered rock below the soil (figure 12.13).

Solution Weathering Some minerals are completely dissolved by chemical weathering. Calcite, for instance, goes into solution when exposed to carbon dioxide and water, as shown in equation B in table 12.1 and in figure 12.13. The carbon dioxide and water combine to form carbonic acid, which dissociates into the hydrogen ion and the bicarbonate ion, as you have seen, so the equation for the solution of calcite can also be written as equation C in table 12.1. There are no solid products in the last part of the equation, indicating that complete solution of the calcite has occurred. Caves can form underground when flowing ground water dissolves the sedimentary rock limestone, which is mostly calcite. Rain can discolor and dissolve statues and tombstones carved from the metamorphic rock marble, which is also mostly calcite (see figure 12.1).

FIGURE 12.12 Spring Creek debris dam collects acid mine drainage from the Iron Mountain Mines Superfund site in northern California. Photo by Charles Alpers, U.S. Geological Survey

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TABLE 12.1

Chemical Equations Important to Weathering

A. Solution of Carbon Dioxide in Water to Form Acid

CO2 carbon dioxide

H2O water

→ ←

H2CO3 carbonic acid

→ ←

H hydrogen ion

HCO3 bicarbonate ion

CO2 carbon dioxide

H2O water

→ ←

Ca calcium ion

2HCO3 bicarbonate ion

H

HCO3

→ ←

Ca

2HCO3

B. Solution of Calcite

CaCO3 calcite

C. Solution of Calcite

CaCO3

D. Chemical Weathering of Feldspar to Form a Clay Mineral 2KAISi3O8 potassium feldspar

2H 2HCO3

H2O

(from CO2 and H2O)

Al2Si2O5(OH)4 clay mineral

2K 2HCO3 (soluble ions)

4 SiO2 silica in solution or as fine solid particles

Chemical Weathering of Feldspar H 2O +CO2 = H2CO3

Water reacts with carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid (H2CO3 )

Carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen (H+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3–) H+ –

HCO3

Soil acids contribute additional hydrogen ions

H+

H+ H+

H+

H+

Hydrogen ions react with minerals in rock

Calcite (CaCO3 )

Feldspar (KAIS3O8)

Calcite dissolves completely

K+ SiO2 HCO3 –

H+

Ca2+ Kaolinite Clay (Al2Si2O5(OH)4)

HCO3–

Feldspar weathers to clay releasing dissolved ions

FIGURE 12.13 Chemical weathering of feldspar and calcite by carbonic and soil acids. Water percolating through soil weathers feldspar to clay and completely dissolves calcite. Soluble ions and soluble silica weathering products are washed away.

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The weathering of feldspar is an example of the alteration of an original mineral to an entirely different type of mineral as the weathered product. When feldspar is attacked by the hydrogen ion of carbonic acid (from carbon dioxide and water), it forms clay minerals. In general, a clay mineral is a hydrous aluminum silicate with a sheet-silicate structure like that of mica. Therefore, the entire silicate structure of the feldspar crystal is altered by weathering: feldspar is a framework silicate, but the clay mineral product is a sheet silicate, differing both chemically and physically from feldspar. Let us look in more detail at the weathering of feldspar (equation D in table 12.1). Rainwater percolates down through soil, picking up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and the upper part of the soil. The water, now slightly acidic, comes in contact with feldspar in the lower part of the soil (figure 12.13), as shown in the first part of the equation. The acidic water reacts with the feldspar and alters it to a clay mineral. The hydrogen ion (H ) attacks the feldspar structure, becoming incorporated into the clay mineral product. When the hydrogen moves into the crystal structure, it releases potassium (K) from the feldspar. The potassium is carried away in solution as a dissolved ion (K). The bicarbonate ion from the original carbonic acid does not enter into the reaction; it reappears on the right side of the equation. The soluble potassium and bicarbonate ions are carried away by water (ground water or streams). All the silicon from the feldspar cannot fit into the clay mineral, so some is left over and is carried away as silica (SiO2) by the moving water. This excess silica may be carried in solution or as extremely small solid particles.

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The weathering process is the same regardless of the type of feldspar: K-feldspar forms potassium ions; Na-feldspar and Ca-feldspar (plagioclase) form sodium ions and calcium ions, respectively. The ions that result from the weathering of Cafeldspar are calcium ions (Ca ) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3), both of which are very common in rivers and underground water, particularly in humid regions.

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Surface Diamonds concentrated by weathering

Diamonds

Surface Kimberlite pipe

Chemical Weathering of Other Minerals The weathering of ferromagnesian or dark minerals is much the same as that of feldspars. Two additional products are found on the right side of the equation—magnesium ions and iron oxides (hematite, limonite, and goethite). The susceptibility of the rock-forming minerals to chemical weathering is dependent on the strength of the mineral’s chemical bonding within the crystal framework. Because of the strength of the silicon-oxygen bond, quartz is quite resistant to chemical weathering. Thus, quartz (SiO2) is the rock-forming mineral least susceptible to chemical attack at Earth’s surface. Ferromagnesian minerals such as olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole include other positively charged ions such as Al, Fe, Mg, and Ca. The presence of these positively charged ions in the crystal framework makes these minerals vulnerable to chemical attack due to the weaker chemical bonding between these ions and oxygen, as compared to the much stronger silicon-oxygen bonds. For example, olivine—(Fe, Mg)2SiO4—weathers rapidly because its isolated silicon-oxygen tetrahedra are held together by relatively weak ionic bonds between oxygen and iron and magnesium. These ions are replaced by H ions during chemical weathering similar to that described for the feldspars.

Weathering and Diamond Concentration Diamond is the hardest mineral known and is also extremely resistant to weathering. This is due to the very strong covalent bonding of carbon, as described in chapter 9. But diamonds are often concentrated by weathering, as illustrated in figure 12.14. Diamonds are brought to the surface of Earth in kimberlite pipes, columns of brecciated or broken ultramafic rock that have risen from the upper mantle. Diamonds are widely scattered in diamond pipes when they form. At the surface, the ultramafic rock in the pipe is preferentially weathered and

TABLE 12.2

B

FIGURE 12.14 Residual concentration by weathering. (A) Cross-sectional view of diamonds widely scattered within kimberlite pipe. (B) Diamonds concentrated on surface by removal of rock by weathering and erosion.

eroded away. The diamonds, being more resistant to weathering, are left behind, concentrated in rich deposits on top of the pipes. Rivers may redistribute and reconcentrate the diamonds, as in South Africa and India. In Canada, kimberlite pipes have been eroded by glaciers, and diamonds may be found widely scattered in glacial deposits.

Weathering Products Table 12.2 summarizes weathering products for the common minerals. Note that quartz and clay minerals commonly are left after complete chemical weathering of a rock. Sometimes other solid products, such as iron oxides, also are left after weathering. The solution of calcite supplies substantial amounts of calcium ions (Ca) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3) to underground water. The weathering of Ca-feldspars (plagioclase) into clay minerals can also supply Ca and HCO3 ions, as well as silica (SiO2), to water. Under ordinary chemical circumstances, the dissolved Ca and HCO3 can combine to form solid CaCO3 (calcium carbonate), the mineral calcite. Dissolved silica can also precipitate as a solid from underground water. This is significant because calcite and silica are the most common materials precipitated as cement, which binds loose particles of sand, silt, and clay into solid sedimentary rock

Weathering Products of Common Rock-Forming Minerals

Original Mineral Feldspar Ferromagnesian minerals (including biotite mica) Muscovite mica Quartz Calcite

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A

Under Influence of CO2 and H2O

Main Solid Product

Other Products (Mostly Soluble)

→ →

Clay mineral Clay mineral

→ → →

Clay mineral Quartz grains (sand and silt) —

Ions (Na, Ca, K), SiO2 Ions (Na, Ca, K, Mg), SiO2, Fe oxides Ions (K), SiO2 Ions (Ca, HCO3)

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(see chapter 14). The weathering of calcite, feldspars, and other minerals is a likely source for such cement. If the soluble ions and silica are not precipitated as solids, they remain in solution and may eventually find their way into a stream and then into the ocean. Enormous quantities of dissolved material are carried by rivers into the sea (one estimate is 4 billion tons per year). This is the main reason seawater is salty.

Factors Affecting Weathering The intensity of both mechanical and chemical weathering is affected by a variety of factors. Chemical weathering is largely a function of the availability of liquid water. Rock chemically weathers much faster in humid climates than in arid climates. Limestone, which is extremely susceptible to dissolution, weathers quickly and tends to form valleys in wet regions such as the Appalachian Mountains. However, in the arid west, limestone is a resistant rock that forms ridges and cliffs. Temperature is also a factor in chemical weathering. The most intense chemical weathering occurs in the tropics, which are both wet and hot. Polar regions experience very little chemical weathering because of the frigid temperatures and the absence of liquid water. Mechanical weathering intensity is also related to climate (temperature and humidity), as well as to slope. Temperate climates, where abundant water repeatedly freezes and thaws, promote extensive frost weathering. Steep slopes cause rock to fall and break up under the influence of gravity. The most intense mechanical weathering probably occurs in high mountain peaks where the combination of steep slopes, precipitation, freezing and thawing, and flowing glacial ice rapidly pulverize the solid rock.

SOIL In terms of Earth systems, soil forms an essential interface between the solid Earth (geosphere), biosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Soil is an incredibly valuable resource that

supports life on Earth. In common usage, soil is the name for the loose, unconsolidated material that covers most of Earth’s land surface. Geologists call this material regolith, however, and reserve the term soil for a layer of weathered, unconsolidated material that contains organic matter and is capable of supporting plant growth. A mature, fertile soil is the product of centuries of mechanical and chemical weathering of rock, combined with the addition and decay of plant and other organic matter. An average soil is composed of 45% rock and mineral fragments (including clay), 5% decomposed organic matter, or humus, and 50% pore space. The rock and mineral fragments in a soil provide an anchoring place for the roots of plants. The clay minerals attract water molecules (figure 12.15) and plantnutrient ions (figure 12.16), which are loosely held and available for uptake by plant roots. The humus releases weak acids that contribute to the chemical weathering of soil. Humus also produces plant nutrients and increases the water retention ability of the soil. The pore spaces are the final essential component of a fertile soil. Water and air circulate through the pore spaces, carrying dissolved nutrients and carbon dioxide, which is necessary for the growth of plants. The size and number of pore spaces, and therefore the ability of a soil to transmit air and water, are largely a function of the texture of a soil. Soil texture refers to the proportion of different-sized particles, generally referred to as sand, silt, and clay. Quartz generally weathers into sand grains that help keep soil loose and aerated, allowing good water drainage. Partially weathered crystals of feldspar and other minerals can also form sand-sized grains. Soils with too much sand, however, can drain too rapidly and deprive plants of necessary water. Clay minerals occur as microscopic plates and help hold water and plant nutrients in a soil. Because of ion substitution within their sheet-silicate structure, most clay minerals have a negative electrical charge on the flat surfaces of the plates. This negative charge attracts water and nutrient ions to the clay mineral (figures 12.15 and 12.16). Plant nutrients, such as Ca and K, commonly supplied by the weathering of minerals such as feldspar, are also held loosely on the

Clay mineral + H

+ O

H

– Water molecule (H2O)

– + –

– + –

– + – – – – + – – – + –

Plant root

H+

– + –

+ –

K+ Clay mineral Ca+2

K+

H+

FIGURE 12.15

FIGURE 12.16

Negative charge on the outside of a platy clay mineral attracts the positive end of a water molecule.

A plant root releases H (hydrogen) ions from organic acids and exchanges them for plant-nutrient ions held by clay minerals.

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surface of clay minerals. A plant root is able to release H from organic acids and exchange it for the Ca and K that the plant needs for healthy growth (figure 12.16). Too much clay in a soil may pack together closely, though, causing pore spaces to be too small to allow water to drain properly. Too much water in the soil and not enough air may cause plant roots to rot and die. Silt particles are between sand and clay in size. A soil with approximately equal parts sand, silt, and clay is referred to as loam. Loamy soils are well-drained, may contain organic matter, and are often very fertile and productive.

Soil Horizons As soils mature, distinct layers appear in them (figure 12.17). Soil layers are called soil horizons and can be distinguished from one another by appearance and chemical composition. Boundaries between soil horizons are usually transitional rather than sharp. By observing a vertical cross section, or soil profile, various horizons can be identified. The O horizon is the uppermost layer that consists entirely of organic material. Ground vegetation and recently fallen leaves and needles are included in this horizon, as well as highly decomposed plant material called humus. The humus from the

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O horizon mixes with weathered mineral matter just below to form the A horizon, a dark-colored soil layer that is rich in organic matter and high in biological activity, both plant and animal. The two upper horizons are often referred to as topsoil. Organic acids and carbon dioxide produced by decaying plants in the topsoil percolate down into the E horizon, or zone of leaching, and help dissolve minerals such as iron and calcium. The downward movement of water in the E horizon carries the dissolved minerals, and fine-grained clay minerals as well, into the soil layer below. This leaching (or eluviation) of clay and soluble minerals can make the E horizon pale and sandy. The material leached downward from the E horizon accumulates in the B horizon, or zone of accumulation. This layer is often quite clayey and stained red or brown by hematite and limonite. Calcite may also build up in B horizons. This horizon is frequently called the subsoil. Within the B horizon, a hard layer of Earth material called hardpan may form in wet climates where clay minerals, silica, and iron compounds have accumulated in the B horizon from eluviation of the overlying E horizon. A hardpan layer is very difficult to dig or drill through and may even be too hard for backhoes to dig through; planting a tree in a lawn with a hardpan layer may require a jackhammer. Tree roots may grow laterally along rather than down through hardpan; such shallow-rooted trees are usually uprooted by the wind. O horizon A horizon

O Organic matter Topsoil

E horizon

A Organic matter mixed with mineral material E Leaching by downwardpercolating water

Subsoil

B Accumulation of clay minerals, Fe oxides, and calcite C Fragments mechanically weathered from bedrock and some partially decomposed

B horizon

Unweathered parent material A

B

FIGURE 12.17 (A) Horizons (O, A, E, B, and C) in a soil profile that form in a humid climate. (B) Soil profile that shows the A horizon stained dark by humus. The E horizon is lighter in color, sandy, and crumbly. The clayey B horizon is stained red by hematite, leached downward from the E horizon. Photo by United States Department of Agriculture

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EARTH SYSTEMS 12.1

Weathering, the Carbon Cycle, and Global Climate

W

eathering has affected the long-term climate of Earth by changing the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere through the inorganic carbon cycle (see box figure 1). Carbon dioxide is a “greenhouse gas” that traps solar heat near the surface, warming the Earth. The planet Venus has a dense atmosphere composed mostly of CO2, which traps so much solar heat that the surface temperature averages a scorching 480°C (about 900°F—see chapter 22). Earth has comparatively very little CO2 in its atmosphere (see box table 1)—enough to keep most of the surface above freezing but not too hot to support life. However, when Earth first formed, its atmosphere was probably very much like that of Venus, with much more CO2. What happened to most of the original carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere? Geologists think that a quantity of CO2 equal to approximately 65,000 times the mass of CO2 in the present atmosphere lies buried in the crust and upper mantle of Earth. Some of this CO2 was used to make organic molecules during photosynthesis and is now trapped as buried organic matter and fossil fuels in sedimentary rocks. However, the majority of the missing CO2 was converted to bicarbonate ion (HCO3) during chemical weathering and is locked away in carbonate minerals (primarily CaCO3) that formed layers of limestone rock. The inorganic carbon cycle helps to regulate the climate of Earth because CO2 is a greenhouse gas, chemical weathering accelerates with warming, and the formation of limestone occurs mostly in warm, tropical oceans. When Earth’s climate is warm, chemical

BOX 12.1 ■ TABLE 1

Carbon Dioxide in the Atmospheres of Earth, Mars, and Venus Earth

Mars

Venus

CO2%

0.33

95.3

96.5

Total surface pressure, bars

1.0a

.006

92

a Approximately 50 bars of CO2 is buried in the crust of the Earth as limestone and organic carbon.

weathering and the formation of limestone increase, drawing CO2 from the atmosphere, which cools the climate. When the global climate cools, chemical weathering and limestone formation slow down, allowing CO2 to accumulate in the atmosphere from volcanism, which warms the Earth. An increase in chemical weathering can also lead to global cooling by removing more CO2 from the atmosphere. For example, the Cenozoic uplift and weathering of large regions of high mountains such as the Alps and the Himalaya may have triggered the global cooling that culminated in the glaciations of the Pleistocene epoch.

Additional Resource • http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/CarbonCycle/

CO2 + H2 O CO2 Carbonic acid

Ca2+ HCO3 – Sediment and rock

Volcanism Ca2+ + H2O = CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O

Chemical weathering

Limestone formation Subduction

CaCO3+SiO + SiO2 2== CaSiO3+CO + CO2 2

INORGANIC CARBON CYCLE

Metamorphism

BOX 12.1 ■ FIGURE 1 Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid in the atmosphere. Carbonic acid reacts with sediment and rocks during chemical weathering, releasing calcium ions and bicarbonate ions (HCO3), which are carried by rivers into the sea. The precipitation of CaCO3 mineral in the oceans (see chapter 14) forms layers of limestone rock. Deep burial of limestone leads to metamorphism, which causes silica and calcite to form calcium silicate minerals and carbon dioxide. The CO2 remains trapped in Earth’s interior until it is released during volcanic eruptions.

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The C horizon is incompletely weathered parent material that lies below the B horizon. The parent material is commonly subjected to mechanical and chemical weathering from frost action, roots, plant acids, and other agents. The C horizon is transitional between the unweathered rock or sediment below and the developing soil above.

Factors Affecting Soil Formation Most soils take a long time to form. The rate of soil formation is controlled by rainfall, temperature, slope, and, to some extent, the type of rock that weathers to form soil. High temperature and abundant rainfall speed up soil formation, but in most places, a fully developed soil that can support plant growth takes hundreds or thousands of years to form. It would seem that the properties of a soil should be determined by the rock (the parent material) from which it formed, and this is partly true. Several other factors, however, are important in the formation of a soil, sometimes playing a larger role than the rocks themselves in determining the types of soils formed. These additional factors, slope, living organisms, climate, and time, are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Parent Material The character of a soil depends partly on the parent material from which it develops. The parent material is the source of the weathered mineral matter that makes up most of a soil. A soil developing on weathering granite will be sandy, as sand-sized particles of quartz and feldspar are released from the granite. As the feldspar grains weather completely, fine-grained clay minerals are formed. The resulting soil will contain a variety of grain sizes and will have drainage and water-retention properties conducive to plant growth. A soil forming on basalt may never be sandy, even in its early stages of development. If chemical weathering processes are more prevalent than mechanical weathering processes, the fine-grained feldspars in the basalt will weather directly to finegrained clay minerals. Since the parent rock had no coarsegrained minerals and no quartz to begin with, the resulting soil may lack sand. Such a soil may not drain well, although it can be quite fertile. Both of these soils are called residual soils; they develop from weathering of the bedrock beneath them. Figure 12.17A is a diagram of residual soil developing in a humid climate from a bedrock source. Transported soils do not develop from locally formed rock, but from regolith brought in from some other region (figure 12.18). (Keep in mind that it is not the soil itself that is transported, but the parent material from which it is formed.) For example, mud deposited by a river during times of flooding can form an excellent agricultural soil next to the river after floodwaters recede. Wind deposits called loess (see chapter 18) form the base for some of the most valuable foodproducing soils in the Midwest and the Pacific Northwest. Transported soils are generally more fertile than residual soils

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because the parent material is transported from many different locations; there is more variety in the chemical makeup of the parent material, so a greater variety of minerals and nutrients are supplied to the resulting soil.

Slope The slope of the land surface provides an important control on the formation of soil (figure 12.18). Soils tend to be thin or nonexistent on steep slopes, where gravity keeps water and soil particles moving downhill. Vegetation is sparse on steep slopes, so there are not many roots to hold the weathering rock in place and little organic matter to provide nutrients. By contrast, soils in bottomlands may be very thick, but poorly drained and waterlogged. Vegetation in the bottomlands does not decay completely and thick, dark layers of peat may form. The optimal topography for soil formation is flat or gently sloping uplands, allowing good drainage, minimal erosion, and healthy vegetation cover.

Living Organisms The biosphere plays an important role in soil development. The chief function of living organisms is to provide organic material to the soil. Decomposing plants form humus, which supplies nutrients to the soil and aids in water retention. The decaying plant matter releases organic acids that increase chemical weathering of rocks. Growing plants send roots deep into the soil, breaking up the underlying bedrock and opening up pore spaces. Burrowing organisms such as ants, worms, and rodents bring soil particles to the surface and mix the organic and mineral components of the soil. They create passageways that allow for the circulation of air and water, increasing chemical Residual soil is developed on bedrock

Transported soil is developed on flood deposits

Transported soil Residual soil

Residual soil Bedrock

Flood deposits

Soil is thin to nonexistent on steep slopes due to erosion

FIGURE 12.18 Residual soil develops from weathering of bedrock beneath the hills, whereas transported soil develops on top of flood plain deposits (regolith) in the stream valley. Soils are thin to nonexistent on the steeper slopes because of erosion.

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weathering and accelerating soil formation. Microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and protozoa promote the decomposition of organic matter to humus and some bacteria fix nitrogen in the soil, making it available for uptake by plants. The interdependency of plants, animals, and soil is a mutually beneficial and delicately balanced system.

Climate Climate is perhaps the most influential factor affecting soil thickness and character. The same parent materials in the same topography will form significantly different soil types under different climatic conditions. Temperature and precipitation determine whether chemical or mechanical weathering processes will dominate and strongly influence the rate and depth of weathering. The amount and types of vegetation and animal life that contribute to soil formation are also determined by climate. Soils in temperate, moist climates, as in Europe and the eastern United States, tend to be thick and are generally characterized by downward movement of water through Earth materials (figure 12.17 shows such a soil). In general, these soils tend to be fertile, have a high content of aluminum and iron oxides and well-developed horizons, and are marked by effective downward leaching due to high rainfall and to the acids produced by decay of abundant humus. In arid climates, as in many parts of the western United States, soils tend to be thin and are characterized by little leaching, scant humus, and the upward movement of soil water beneath the land surface. The water is drawn up by subsurface evaporation and capillary action. As the water evaporates beneath the land surface, salts are precipitated within the soil (figure 12.19). An extreme example of salt buildup can be found in desert alkali soils, in which heavy concentrations of toxic sodium salts may prevent plant growth. Another example of the control of climate on soil formation is found in the tropical rain forests of the world. The high temperatures and abundant rainfall combine to form extremely thick red soils called oxisols, or laterites, that are highly leached and generally infertile. See box 12.2 for a discussion of these soils.

Time Note that the character of a soil changes with time. In a soil that has been weathering for a short period of time, the characteristics are largely determined by the parent material. Young soils can retain the structure of the parent rock, such as bedding layers. As time progresses, other factors become more important and climate eventually predominates. Soils forming from many different kinds of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks can become quite similar, given the same climate and enough time. In the long term, the only characteristic of the parent rock to have significance is the presence or absence of coarse grains of quartz. With time, soils tend to become thicker. In regions of ongoing volcanic activity, the length of time between eruptions can

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Accumulation of a calcite layer and nodules as upward-moving ground water evaporates

FIGURE 12.19 Soil profile marked by upward-moving ground water that evaporates underground in a drier climate, precipitating calcium carbonate within the soil, sometimes forming a light-colored layer. Photo by D. Yost, U.S. Agriculture Department Soil Conservation Service

be estimated by the thickness of the soil that has formed on each flow (figure 12.20). A soil that has been buried by a lava flow, volcanic ash, windblown dust, glacial deposits, or other sediment is called a buried soil, or paleosol (paleo = ancient). Such soils may be distinctive and traceable over wide regions and may contain buried organic remains, making them useful for dating rocks and sediments, and for interpreting past climates and topography.

Basalt flow C Thinner soil

Buried soils (paleosols)

Basalt flow B

Basalt flow A

FIGURE 12.20 Because soils tend to become thicker with time, the thickness of soils developed on successive basalt flows can be used to estimate the length of time between eruptions. Based on the soil thickness, more time elapsed between the eruption of basalt flows A and B than between flows B and C. These soils have been covered by the youngest basalt flow (C) and are examples of buried soils or paleosols.

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I N G R E AT E R D E P T H 1 2 . 2

Where Do Aluminum Cans Come From?

T

he answer can be found in tropical soils where extreme chemical weathering occurs. The high temperatures and abundant rainfall in tropical regions produce some of the thickest soil on Earth. Lush vegetation grows over this soil, but the soil itself is very infertile. As water percolates down through the soil in this hot, humid climate, plant nutrients are dissolved and carried downward, out of reach of plant roots. Even silica is dissolved in this environment, and the soil that remains is composed almost entirely of iron and aluminum oxides. This highly leached soil is an oxisol, commonly called laterite and it is characteristically red in color (box figure 1). The iron oxides give the soil its red color, but the iron is seldom rich enough to mine. The aluminum oxides, however, may form rich ore deposits near the surface. As leaching proceeds, nearly pure layers of bauxite (Al(OH)3), the principal ore of aluminum, are left near the surface in large deposits that are on average 4–6 meters thick and may cover many square kilometers (box figure 2). Eighty percent of the world’s aluminum is mined from large blanket deposits in West Africa, Australia, South America, and India. The bauxite ore is washed, crushed, and then dissolved under high temperature and pressure in a caustic solution of sodium hydroxide. The chemical equation for this process is: Al(OH)3 Na OH– → Al(OH)4– Na

The undissolved residue, mostly iron, silica, and titanium, settles to the bottom, and the sodium aluminate solution is pumped into precipitators, where the previous reaction is reversed. Al(OH)4– Na → Al(OH)3 Na OH– The sodium hydroxide is recovered and returned to the beginning of the process, and the pure bauxite crystals are passed to another process that drives off water to form a white alumina (aluminum oxide) powder. 2Al(OH)3 → Al2O3 3H2O The alumina is then smelted by passing electric currents through the powder to separate the metallic aluminum from the oxygen. Small amounts of other metals may be added to the molten aluminum to form alloys, and the aluminum is cast into blocks that are sent to factories for further processing. The aluminum alloy used for beverage cans contains manganese, which helps the metal become more ductile as it is rolled into the thin sheets from which the cans are formed. Aluminum smelting is very energy-intensive; 15.7 kilowatt hours of electricity are required to produce a single kilogram of aluminum (the average home in the United States uses 24 kilowatt hours of electricity each day). To control costs, smelters are frequently located near hydroelectric power plants, which are built for the sole purpose of powering the smelters. Aluminum can be recycled repeatedly. Recycling uses only 5% of the energy required to make “new” aluminum. Twenty recycled cans can be produced with the same amount of energy required to produce a single can from bauxite. Worldwide, over 40% of the aluminum demand is supplied by recycled material. The aluminum from the beverage can that you toss into the recycle bins is recovered, mixed with a small percent of new aluminum, and is back on the shelves as a new can of soda in 6 to 8 weeks.

Additional Resource • www.world-aluminium.org/

Web page for the International Aluminum Institute contains additional information on the production and use of aluminum.

Bauxite

Bauxite carried off source rock by streams

Aluminum-rich igneous rock (source rock)

BOX 12.2 ■ FIGURE 1 Laterite soil (oxisol) develops in very wet climates, where intense, downward leaching carries away all but iron and aluminum oxides. Many laterites are a rusty orange to deep red color from the oxidation of the iron oxides. Photo by USDA Natural Resources Conserva-

tion Service

BOX 12.2 ■ FIGURE 2 Bauxite forms by intense tropical weathering of an aluminum-rich source rock such as a volcanic tuff.

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Soil Erosion Although soil accounts for an almost insignificant fraction of all Earth materials, it is one of the most significant resources in terms of its effect on life. Soil provides nourishment and physical support for plant life. It is the very base of the food chain that supports human existence. As such, soil is one of Earth’s most vital resources, but it is also one of Earth’s most abused. The upper layers of a soil, the O and A horizons, are the most fertile and productive. These are the layers that are most vulnerable to erosion due to land mismanagement by poor farming and grazing practices. Scientists estimate that the Earth has lost about 10% of its productive value (the ability to provide crops, pasture, and forest products) over the last 50 years. If measures are not taken to curb the loss of fertile soils to erosion, an additional 10% of Earth’s productivity could be lost in the next 25 years.

A

How Soil Erodes Soil particles are small and are therefore easily eroded by water and wind. Raindrops strike unprotected soil like tiny bombs, dislodging soil particles in a process called splash erosion (figure 12.21A). As rain continues, a thin sheet of running water forms over the landscape, carrying the dislodged soil particles away (sheet erosion). Currents that form in the sheet of water cut tiny channels called rills in the exposed soil (figure 12.21B). The rills deepen into gullies, which merge into stream channels. Rivers that turn brown and muddy after rain storms are evidence of the significant amount of soil that can be transported by water. Wind erosion is generally less significant than erosion by water, but is a particular problem in arid and semiarid regions. The wind picks up the lighter components of a soil, such as the clays, silts, and organic matter and may transport them many kilometers. These components are the ones that contribute most to soil fertility. Agricultural soils that have been depleted by wind erosion require increased use of fertilizers to maintain their productivity.

Rates of Erosion The rate of soil erosion is influenced by several factors: soil characteristics, climate, slope, and vegetation. Coarse-grained soils with organic content tend to have larger pore spaces and can absorb more water than soils dominated by clay-sized particles. Less runoff occurs on the coarser soils, and less of the soil is eroded away. The type of rainfall also influences the amount of erosion. A gentle rain over a long period of time produces less splash erosion than a short, heavy rain storm. More water can infiltrate the soil during the gentle rainfall and there is less likelihood of sheet erosion occurring. Slope also plays an important role in soil erosion. Water moves more slowly on gentle slopes and is more likely to percolate down into the soil. The faster-moving water on steeper slopes does not infiltrate

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B

FIGURE 12.21 Soil erosion. (A) Splash erosion dislodges soil particles making them available for removal by sheet erosion and rill erosion. (B) Smaller channels (rills) merge into larger channels as water erodes the loose material on this slope in the Badlands of the western United States. Photo A courtesy of USDA Soil Conservation Service; photo B © Brand X Pictures/PunchStock

and has a greater ability to dislodge and transport soil particles down from the slope. A very significant control on soil erosion rate is the amount and type of vegetation present. Plant roots form networks in the O and A horizons that bind soil particles. The leaf canopy protects the soil from the impact of raindrops, lowering the risk of splash erosion. Thick vegetation can reduce the wind velocity near the ground surface, preventing the loss of soil due to wind erosion. Human activity in the last two centuries has done much to remove the natural vegetation cover on the world’s land surface. Large-scale farming operations, grazing, logging, mining, and construction have disrupted prairies, forests, and other natural environments, such as rain forests, leaving the underlying soils vulnerable to the effects of wind and water (figure 12.22).

Consequences of Erosion All of the soil particles that are eroded by wind and water have to go somewhere and end up being deposited as sediments in streams, flood plains, lakes, and reservoirs. Erosion and sedimentation are natural processes, but they have been proceeding at an unnatural rate since the advent of mechanized farming. Since colonial times, forest land in the Chesapeake Bay watershed has been cleared for farming and timber. Over the last 150

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FIGURE 12.22 Soil erosion caused by clear cutting of rain forest, north of Kuantan, Malaysia. Photo © George Loun/Visuals Unlimited

years, so much sediment from the cleared land has been carried into the Chesapeake Bay that 787 acres of new land have been added to Maryland. The average water depth in the bay has been reduced by almost a meter in some places, requiring increased dredging to keep shipping channels open. Finegrained sediments remain suspended in the water column, reducing water clarity and preventing light from reaching the bottom of the bay. The aquatic vegetation that supports and protects the oysters and other shellfish for which the bay is famous cannot survive in the reduced light. Perhaps one of the most devastating consequences of soil erosion occurred in the American Midwest during the 1930s. Agriculture had expanded nearly tenfold in the Great Plains region between the 1870s and the 1930s. Advances in farm equipment allowed farmers to practice “intensive row crop agriculture,” in which more than 100 million acres of prairie were plowed under and planted in long rows of crops such as corn, soybeans, and wheat. After several years of drought in the 1930s, the row crops failed and the soil was left exposed to the high winds that came whipping across the plains. Huge dust clouds called “black rollers” billowed up, burying vehicles and drifting like snow against houses (figure 12.23). The clouds of sediment drifted east, darkening the sky and falling as muddy rain and snow on the East Coast states. Years of hardship and suffering followed for the inhabitants of the Dust Bowl states. The fertile agricultural soils of the Canadian plains and the northern United States took more than 10,000 years to develop on glacial deposits after the thick continental ice sheet melted. These soils and many others around the world are eroding at an alarming rate, much faster than they are being replaced by newly formed soils. This essential resource, upon which the base of all life rests, has become a nonrenewable resource. Conservation practices such as windbreaks, contour plowing, terracing, and crop rotation have been implemented in recent years to help reduce the amount of topsoil lost to wind and

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A

B

FIGURE 12.23 The Dust Bowl. (A) A “black roller” bears down on a truck on Highway No. 59, south of Lamar, Colorado in 1937. (B) Drifts of dust buried vehicles and outbuildings in Gregory County, South Dakota, 1936. Photos by U.S. Department of Agriculture

water. More must be done, especially in developing countries, to protect this fragile resource.

Soil Classification Early soil classification efforts were based largely on the geology of the underlying rocks. It became apparent, however, that different types of soil could form on the same underlying rock, depending upon climate, topography, and the age of the soil. In many cases, the underlying rock was the least significant factor involved. Several different approaches were tried, and in 1975 a soil classification system was developed that grouped soils into twelve large orders based upon the characteristics of the horizons present in soil profiles. Brief descriptions of the orders are given in table 12.3, along with the factors most important in the formation of each soil. The map in figure 12.24 shows the worldwide distribution of the twelve major orders.

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TABLE 12.3

World Soil Orders

Soil Orders

Description

Controlling Factors

Alfisols

Gray to brown surface horizon, subsurface horizon of clay accumulation; medium to high in plant nutrient ions, common in humid forests. Soils formed in volcanic ash. Soils formed in dry climates, low in organic matter, often having horizons of carbonate, gypsum, or salt. Soils that have no horizons due to young age of parent material or to constant erosion. Weakly weathered soils with permafrost within 2 meters of the surface. Wet, organic soils with relatively little mineral material, such as peat in swamps and marshes. Very young soils that have weakly developed horizons and little or no subsoil clay accumulation. Nearly black surface horizon rich in organic matter and plant nutrient ions; subhumid to semiarid midlatitude grasslands. Heavily weathered soils low in plant nutrient ions, rich in aluminum and iron oxides; humid, tropical climates; also called laterites. Acid soils low in plant nutrient ions with subsurface accumulation of humus that is complexed with aluminum and iron; cool, humid pine forests in sandy parent material. Strongly weathered soils low in plant nutrient ions with clay accumulation in the subsurface; humid temperate and tropical acid forest environments. Clayey soils that swell when wet and shrink when dry, forming wide, deep cracks.

Climate Organisms

Andisols Aridisols Entisols Gelisols Histosols Inceptisols Mollisols Oxisols Spodosols

Ultisols

Vertisols

Parent material Climate Time Topography Climate Topography Time Climate Climate Organisms Climate Time Parent material Organisms Climate Climate Time Organisms Parent material

After E. Brevik, 2002, Journal of Geoscience Education, v. 50, n. 5.

FIGURE 12.24

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Worldwide distribution of soil orders. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, World Soil Resources Division

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Summary When rocks that formed deep in Earth become exposed at the Earth’s surface, they are altered by mechanical and chemical weathering. Weathering processes produce spheroidal weathering, differentially weathered landforms, sheet joints, and exfoliation domes. Mechanical weathering, largely caused by frost action and pressure release after unloading, disintegrates (breaks) rocks into smaller pieces. By increasing the exposed surface area of rocks, mechanical weathering helps speed chemical weathering. Chemical weathering results when a mineral is unstable in the presence of water and atmospheric gases. As chemical weathering proceeds, the mineral’s components recombine into new minerals that are more in equilibrium. Weak acid, primarily from the solution of carbon dioxide in water, is an effective agent of chemical weathering. Calcite dissolves when it is chemically weathered. Most of the silicate minerals form clay minerals when they chemically weather. Quartz is very resistant to chemical weathering. Soil develops by chemical and mechanical weathering of a parent material. Some definitions of soil require that it contain organic matter and be able to support plant growth. Soils, which can be residual or transported, usually have distinguishable layers, or horizons, caused in part by water movement within the soil. Climate is the most important factor determining soil type. Other factors in soil development are parent material, time, slope, and organic activity.

Terms to Remember A horizon 313 B horizon (zone of accumulation) 313 C horizon 315 chemical weathering 303 clay mineral 310 differential weathering 304 E horizon (zone of leaching) 313 erosion 302 exfoliation 305 exfoliation dome 305 frost action 305 frost heaving 305 frost wedging 305

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hematite 308 limonite 308 loam 313 mechanical weathering 303 O horizon 313 pressure release 305 residual soil 315 sheet joints 305 soil 312 soil horizon 313 spheroidal weathering 304 transportation 302 transported soil 315 weathering 302

Use the following questions to prepare for exams based on this chapter. 1. Why are some minerals stable several kilometers underground but unstable at Earth’s surface? 2. Describe what happens to each mineral within granite during the complete chemical weathering of granite in a humid climate. List the final products for each mineral. 3. Explain what happens chemically when calcite dissolves. Show the reaction in a chemical equation. 4. Why do stone buildings tend to weather more rapidly in cities than in rural areas? 5. Describe at least three processes that mechanically weather rock. 6. How can mechanical weathering speed up chemical weathering? 7. Name at least three natural sources of acid in solution. Which one is most important for chemical weathering? 8. What is the difference between a residual soil and a transported soil? 9. What factors affect the formation of soil? 10. How do soils erode, and why is it important to minimize soil erosion? 11. What are the soil horizons? How do they form? 12. Physical disintegration of rock into smaller pieces is called a. chemical weathering

b. transportation

c. deposition

d. mechanical weathering

13. The decomposition of rock from exposure to water and atmospheric gases is called a. chemical weathering

b. transportation

c. deposition

d. mechanical weathering

14. Which is not a type of mechanical weathering? a. frost wedging

b. frost heaving

c. pressure release

d. oxidation

15. The single most effective agent of chemical weathering at Earth’s surface is a. carbonic acid H2CO3

b. water H2O

c. carbon dioxide CO2

d. hydrochloric acid HCl

16. The most common end product of the chemical weathering of feldspar is a. clay minerals

b. pyroxene

c. amphibole

d. calcite

17. The most common end product of the chemical weathering of quartz is a. clay minerals

b. pyroxene

c. amphibole

d. calcite

e. quartz does not usually weather chemically 18. Soil with approximately equal amounts of sand, silt, and clay along with a generous amount of organic matter is called a. loam

b. inorganic

c. humus

d. caliche

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19. Which is characteristic of soil horizons? a. they can be distinguished from one another by appearance and chemical composition b. boundaries between soil horizons are usually transitional rather than sharp c. they are classified by letters d. all of the preceding

1. Which mineral weathers faster—hornblende or quartz? Why? 2. Compare and contrast the weathering rate and weathering products for Ca-rich plagioclase in the following localities: a. central Pennsylvania with 40 inches of rain per year;

20. The soil horizon containing only organic material is the a. A horizon

b. B horizon

c. C horizon

d. O horizon

e. E horizon 21. Hardpan forms in the a. A horizon

b. B horizon

c. C horizon

d. E horizon

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b. Death Valley with 2 inches of rain per year; c. an Alaskan mountaintop where water is frozen year-round. 3. The amount of carbon dioxide gas has been increasing in the atmosphere for the past 40 years as a result of the burning of fossil fuels. What effect will the increase in CO2 have on the rate of chemical weathering? The increase in CO2 may cause substantial global warming in the future. What effect would a warmer climate have on the rate of chemical weathering? Give the reasons for your answers. 4. In a humid climate, is a soil formed from granite the same as one formed from gabbro? Discuss the similarities and possible differences with particular regard to mineral content and soil color.

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Exploring Web Resources www.mhhe.com/carlson9e McGraw-Hill’s website for Physical Geology: Earth Revealed 9th edition features a wide variety of study aids, such as animations, quizzes, answers to the end-of-chapter multiple choice questions, additional readings and Google Earth exercises, Internet exercises, and much more. The URLs listed in this book are given as links in chapter web pages, making it easy to go to a website without typing in its URL.

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http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/ University of Idaho Soil Science Division. Web page contains photos, descriptions, and surveys of the twelve major soil orders. http://soils.usda.gov/ U.S. Department of Agriculture site provides information on soil surveys, photos, and comprehensive coverage of soils. http://res.agr.ca/cansis/_overview.html Canadian Soil Information System provides links to detailed soil surveys and land inventories.

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C

H

A

P

T

E

R

13 Mass Wasting Surficial Processes Relationships to Earth Systems Introduction to Mass Wasting Classification of Mass Wasting Rate of Movement Type of Material Type of Movement

Controlling Factors in Mass Wasting Gravity Water Triggers

Common Types of Mass Wasting Creep Flow Rockfalls and Rockslides

Underwater Landslides Preventing Landslides Preventing Mass Wasting of Soil Preventing Rockfalls and Rockslides on Highways

Summary

Surficial Processes

P

late tectonics explains how rock is deformed and why we have mountains. This chapter and chapters 16 through 20 are concerned with surficial processes, the interaction of rock, air, and water in response to gravity at or near the Earth’s surface. Nearly all of the features we see as landforms—rounded or rugged mountains, river valleys, cliffs and beaches along seashores, caves, sand dunes, and so on—are products of surficial processes. Surficial processes involve weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition. Subsequent chapters address the work of running water, ground water (water that is beneath the surface), glaciers, wind, and ocean waves. This chapter is about the downward movement of masses of rock or loose material. Mass wasting mostly involves landsliding (a very general term). A farm house and stable are damaged by a landslide outside the town of Entlebuch, central Switzerland, Tuesday, Aug. 23, 2005. Note the displaced segment of the road. This landslide is an example of a slump-earthflow described in this chapter. Photo © AP/Wide World Photos

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Relationships to Earth Systems The “spheres” of Earth systems interact to play vital roles in surficial processes. The geosphere, of course, provides the solid rock to be sculpted, weathered, and altered by the various agents of erosion. Water from the hydrosphere is vital to almost all of the surficial processes. Running water plays an important role in weathering and in carving landscapes in desert as well as in wet climates. Water is a common contributor to landslides. Ice, frozen water, is a very efficient agent of erosion and transportation in glaciated areas. Water flowing underground is an important water resource and can result in distinctive landscapes where caves are carved in limestone. The force of

INTRODUCTION TO MASS WASTING You may recall from previous chapters that mountains are products of tectonic forces. Most mountains are associated with present or past convergent plate boundaries. If tectonism were not at work, the surfaces of the continents would long ago have been reduced to featureless plains due to weathering and erosion. We consider the material on mountain slopes or hillsides to be out of equilibrium with respect to gravity. Because of the force of gravity, the various agents of erosion (moving water, ice, and wind) work to make slopes gentler and therefore increasingly more stable. In this chapter, we discuss the process of mass wasting. Mass wasting is movement in which bedrock, rock debris, or soil moves downslope in bulk, or as a mass, because of the pull of gravity. Mass wasting includes movement so slow that it is almost imperceptible (called creep) as well as landslides, a general term for the slow to very rapid descent of rock or soil. The term landslide tells us nothing about the processes

TABLE 13.1

crashing waves shapes our coastlines. Wind, motion of the atmosphere, causes the waves that sculpt coastlines. Wind blowing over the land plays a lesser role than running water, but it is responsible for sand dunes and dust storms. The atmosphere provides the gases, notably carbon dioxide, that mix with water to form acid for chemical weathering. The biosphere would, of course, not exist if it were not for the other “spheres.” But plants and animals also play a role in stabilizing or destabilizing slopes. For instance, plant roots help prevent soil erosion. A beaver dam may change the course of a stream. Humans with heavy equipment alter the normal rate of change of a landscape on a massive scale.

involved. As you will see, terms such as earthflow and rockslide are far more descriptive than landslide. Mass wasting affects people in many ways. Its effects range from the devastation of a killer landslide (such as the debris avalanche described in box 13.1) to the nuisance of having a fence slowly pulled apart by soil creep. The cost in lives and property from landslides is surprisingly high. Damage and casualty reports for landslides are often overlooked because they are part of a larger disaster, such as an earthquake or heavy rain from a hurricane. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, more people in the United States died from landslides during the last three months of 1985 than were killed during the previous twenty years by all other geologic hazards, such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Over time, landslides have cost Americans triple the combined costs of earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, and tornadoes. On average, the annual cost of landslides in the United States has been $1.5 billion and twentyfive lost lives. In many cases of mass wasting, a little knowledge of geology, along with appropriate preventive action, could have averted destruction.

Some Types of Mass Wasting1 Slowest

Increasing Velocities

Type of Movement

Less than 1 centimeter/year

1 millimeter/day to 1 kilometer/hour

Flow

Creep (soil)

Earthflow

Fastest

1 to 5 kilometer/hour

Velocities generally greater than 4 kilometers/hour

Debris Flow

Slide

Mudflow

Debris avalanche (debris) Rock avalanche (bedrock)

Debris slide or earthslide Rockslide (bedrock) Rockfall (bedrock)

Fall “Landslides” 1

The type of material at the start of movement is shown in parentheses. Rates given are typical velocities for each type of movement.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MASS WASTING A number of systems are used by geologists, engineers, and others for classifying mass wasting, but none has been universally accepted. Some are very complex and useful only to the specialist. The classification system used here and summarized in table 13.1 is based on (1) rate of movement, (2) type of material, and (3) nature of the movement.

Rate of Movement A landslide (debris avalanche) like the one in Peru (box 13.1) clearly involves rapid movement. Just as clearly, movement of soil at a rate of less than a centimeter a year is slow movement. There is a wide range of velocities between these two extremes.

Type of Material Mass wasting processes are usually distinguished on the basis of whether the descending mass started as bedrock (as in a rockslide) or as unconsolidated material. For this discussion, Flow

327

we call any unconsolidated or weakly consolidated material at the Earth’s surface, regardless of particle size or composition, soil (also called engineering soil—see chapter 12 for other definitions of soil). Soil can be debris, earth, or mud. Debris implies that coarse-grained fragments predominate in the soil. If the material is predominantly fine-grained (sand, silt, clay) it is called earth (not capitalized). Mud, as the name suggests, has a high content of water, clay, and silt. The amount of water (or ice and snow) in a descending mass strongly influences the rate and type of movement.

Type of Movement In general, the type of movement in mass wasting can be classified as mainly flow, slide, or fall (figure 13.1). A flow implies that the descending mass is moving downslope as a viscous fluid. Slide means the descending mass remains relatively intact, moving along one or more well-defined surfaces. A fall occurs when material free-falls or bounces down a cliff. Two kinds of slip are shown in figure 13.1. In a translational slide, the descending mass moves along a plane approximately Fall Original position on cliff

Original position of mass

Falling rock Waves

Moving mass

Slide Original position of mass Tree was here

Moving mass

Moving mass

FIGURE 13.1 Flow, slide, and fall.

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Translational slide

Rotational slide (slump)

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E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 1 3 . 1

Disaster in the Andes

A

s a result of a tragic combination of geologic conditions and human ignorance of geologic hazards, one of the most devastating landslides (a debris avalanche) in history destroyed the town of Yungay in Peru in 1970. Yungay was one of the most picturesque towns in the Santa River Valley, which runs along the base of the highest peaks of the Peruvian Andes. Heavily glaciated Nevado Huascarán, 6,768 meters (22,204 feet) above sea level, rises steeply above the populated, narrow plains along the Santa River. In May 1970, a sharp earthquake occurred. The earthquake was centered offshore from Peru about 100 kilometers from Yungay. Although the tremors in this part of the Andes were no stronger than those that have done only light damage to cities in the United States, many poorly constructed homes collapsed. Because of the steepness of the slopes, thousands of small rockfalls and rockslides were triggered. The greatest tragedy began when a slab of glacier ice about 800 meters wide, perched near the top of Huascarán, was dislodged by the shaking. (A few years earlier, American climbers returning from the peak had warned that the ice looked highly unstable. The Peruvian press briefly noted the danger to the towns below, but the warning was soon forgotten.) The mass of ice rapidly avalanched down the extremely steep slopes, breaking off large masses of rock debris and scooping out small lakes and loose rock that lay in its path. Eyewitnesses described the mass as a rapidly moving wall the size of a ten-story building. The sound was deafening. More than 50 million cubic meters of muddy debris traveled 3.7 kilometers (12,000 feet) vertically and 14.5 kilometers (9 miles) horizontally in less than four minutes, attaining speeds between 200 and 435 kilometers per hour (125 to 270 miles per hour). The main mass of material traveled down a steep valley until it came to rest, blocking the Santa River and burying about 1,800 people in the small village of Ranrahirca (box figure 1). A relatively small part of the mass of mud and debris that was moving especially rapidly shot up the valley sidewall at a curve and overtopped a ridge. The mass was momentarily airborne before it fell on the town of Yungay, completely burying it under several meters of mud and loose rock. Only the top of the church and tops of palm trees were visible, marking where the town center was buried (box figure 2). Ironically, the cemetery was not buried because it occupied the high ground. The few survivors were people who managed to run to the cemetery. The estimated death toll at Yungay was 17,000. This was considerably more than the town’s normal population, because it was Sunday, a market day, and many families had come in from the country.

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Nevado Huascarán

Lagunas Llanganuco

Yungay

Avalanche source

Ranrahirca

Rio Santa

BOX 13.1 ■ FIGURE 1 Air photo showing the 1970 debris avalanche in Peru, which buried Yungay. The main mass of debris destroyed the small village of Ranrahirca. Photo by Servicio Aerofotografico de Peru, courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey

For several days after the slide, the debris was too muddy for people to walk on, but within three years, grass had grown over the site. Except for the church steeple and the tops of palm trees that still protrude above the ground, and the crosses erected by families of those buried in the landslide, the former site of Yungay appears

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Top of church

B

Yungay Cemetery

A

Part of a bus

Palm trees

C

BOX 13.1 ■ FIGURE 2 (A) Yungay is completely buried, except for the cemetery and a few houses on the small hill in the lower right of the photograph. (B) Behind the palm trees is the top of a church buried under 5 meters of debris at Yungay’s central plaza. (C) Three years later. Photos A and B by George Plafker, U.S. Geological Survey; photo C by C. C. Plummer

to be a scenic meadow overlooking the Santa River. The U.S. Geological Survey and Peruvian geologists found evidence that Yungay itself had been built on top of debris left by an even bigger slide in the recent geologic past. More slides will almost surely occur here in the future.

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Additional Resource G. E. Ericksen, G. Plafker, and J. Fernandez Concha. 1970. Preliminary report on the geologic events associated with the May 31, 1970, Peru earthquake. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 639.

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parallel to the slope of the surface. A rotational slide (also called a slump) involves movement along a curved surface, the upper part moving downward while the lower part moves outward.

CONTROLLING FACTORS IN MASS WASTING Table 13.2 summarizes the factors that influence the likelihood and the rate of movement of mass wasting. The table makes apparent some of the reasons why the landslide (a debris avalanche) in Peru (box 13.1) occurred and why it moved so rapidly. (1) The slopes were exceptionally steep, and (2) the relief (the vertical distance between valley floor and mountain summit) was great, allowing the mass to pick up speed and momentum. (3) Water and ice not only added weight to the mass of debris but made it more fluid. (4) Abundant loose rock and debris were available in the course of the moving mass. (5) Where the landslide began, there were no plants with roots to anchor loose material on the slope. Finally, (6) the region has earthquakes. Although the debris avalanche would have occurred eventually even without one, it was triggered by an earthquake. A trigger is the immediate cause of failure of already unstable ground. Other factors influence susceptibility to mass wasting as well as its rate of movement. The orientation of planes of weakness in bedrock (bedding planes, foliation planes, etc.) is important if the movement involves bedrock rather than debris. Fractures or bedding planes oriented so that slabs of rock can slide easily along these surfaces greatly increase the likelihood of mass wasting. Climatic controls inhibit some types of mass wasting and aid others (table 13.2). Climate influences how much and what kinds of vegetation grow in an area and what type of weathering occurs. A climate in which rain drizzles intermittently much of the year will have thick vegetation with roots that tend to inhibit

TABLE 13.2

mass wasting. But a prolonged period of rainfall or short-lived but heavy precipitation will make mass wasting more likely in any climate. In cold climates, freezing and thawing contribute to downslope movement.

Gravity The driving force for mass wasting is gravity. Figure 13.2A–C show gravity acting on a block on a slope. The length of the red, vertical arrow is proportional to the force—the heavier the material, the longer the arrow. The effect of gravity is resolvable into two component forces, indicated by the black arrows. One, the normal force is perpendicular to the slope and is the component of gravity that tends to hold the block in place. The greater its length, the more force is needed to move the block. The other, called the shear force, is parallel to the slope and indicates the block’s ability to move. The length of the arrows is proportional to the strength of each force. The steeper the slope, the greater the shear force and the tendency of the block to slide. Friction counteracts the shear force. Shear resistance (represented by the brown arrow) is the force that would be needed to move the block. If that arrow is larger than the arrow representing shear force (as in figure 13.2A), the block will not move. The magnitude of the shear resistance (and the length of the brown arrow) is a function of friction and the size of the normal force. The brown arrow will be shorter (and the shear resistance lower) if water or ice reduces the friction beneath the block. If the shear resistance becomes lower than the shear force, the block will slide (figure 13.2B). Similar forces act on soil on a hillside (figure 13.2D). The resistance to movement or deformation of that soil is its shear strength. Shear strength is controlled by factors such as the cohesiveness of the material, friction between particles, pore pressure of water, and the anchoring effect of plant roots. Shear strength is also related to the normal force. The larger the normal force, the greater the shear strength is. If the shear

Summary of Controls of Mass Wasting

Driving Force: Gravity Contributing Factors

Most Stable Situation

Most Unstable Situation

Slope angle Gentle slopes or horizontal surface Steep or vertical Local relief Low High Thickness of soil over bedrock Slight thickness (usually) Great thickness Orientation of planes of weakness Planes at right angles to hillside slopes Planes parallel to hillside slopes in bedrock Climatic factors: Ice in ground Temperature stays above freezing Freezing and thawing for much of the year Water in soil or debris Film of water around fine particles Saturation of soil with water Precipitation Frequent but light rainfall Episodes of heavy precipitation Vegetation Heavily vegetated Sparsely vegetated Triggers: (1) earthquakes; (2) weight added to upper part of a slope; (3) undercutting of bottom of slope; (4) heavy rainfall

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www.mhhe.com/carlson9e Shear resistance Shear force

Shear resistance Shear force

Normal force

Normal force

Gravity

A

331

Gravity

B

Shear resistance Normal force

Shear force

Shear force

Shear strength

Gravity

Normal force

Gravity C

D

FIGURE 13.2 Relationship of shear force and normal force to gravity. (A) A block on a gently inclined slope in which the shear resistance (brown arrow) is greater than the shear force; therefore, the block will not move. (B) The same situation as in A, except that the shear resistance is less than the shear force; therefore, the block will be moving. (C) A block on a steep slope. Note how much greater the shear force is and how much larger the shear resistance has to be to prevent the block from moving. (D) Forces acting at a point in soil. Shear strength is represented by a yellow arrow. If that arrow is longer than the one represented by shear force, soil at that point will not slide or be deformed.

strength is greater than the shear force, the soil will not move or be deformed. On the other hand, if shear strength is less than shear force, the soil will flow or slide. Building a heavy structure high on a slope demands special precautions. To prevent movement of both the slope and the building, pilings may have to be sunk through the soil, perhaps even into bedrock. Developers may have to settle for fewer buildings than planned if the weight of too many structures will make the slope unsafe.

Water Water is a critical factor in mass wasting. When soil is saturated with water (as from heavy rain or melting snow), it becomes less viscous, and is more likely to flow downslope. The added gravitational shear force from the increased weight is usually less important than the reduction in shear strength. This is due to increased pore pressure in which water forces soil grains apart. Paradoxically, a small amount of water in soil can actually prevent downslope movement. When water does not completely

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fill the pore spaces between the grains of soil, it forms a thin film around each grain (as shown in figure 13.3). Loose grains adhere to one another because of the surface tension created by the film of water, and shear strength increases. Surface tension of water between sand grains is what allows you to build a sand castle. The sides of the castle can be steep or even vertical because surface tension holds the moist sand grains in place. Dry sand cannot be shaped into a sand castle because the sand grains slide back into a pile that generally slopes at an angle of about 30° to 35° from the horizontal. On the other hand, an experienced sand castle builder also knows that it is impossible to build anything with sand that is too wet. In this case, the water completely occupies the pore space between sand grains, forcing them apart and allowing them to slide easily past one another. When the tide comes in or someone pours a pail of water on your sand castle, all you have is a puddle of wet sand. Similarly, as the amount of water in soil increases, rate of movement tends to increase. Damp soil may not move at all, whereas moderately wet soil moves slowly downslope. Slow types of mass wasting, such as creep, are generally characterized

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Sand grains

Films of water Sand grains

A

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Water

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material. Rainstorms in normally dry southern California caused numerous landslides in January 2005 and parts of the two previous years. These are discussed in this chapter as are other examples of water-triggered landslides, notably the Gros Ventre, Wyoming, and Vaiont, Italy, rockslides, described in this chapter. Construction sometimes triggers mass wasting. The extra weight of buildings on a hillside can cause a landslide, as can bulldozing a road cut at the base of a slope.

COMMON TYPES OF MASS WASTING The types of mass wasting are shown in table 13.1. Here we will describe the most common ones in detail.

Creep C

FIGURE 13.3 The effect of water in sand. (A) Unsaturated sand held together by surface tension of water. (B) Saturated sand grains forced apart by water; mixture flows easily. (C) A sand castle in Acapulco, Mexico. Photo by C. C. Plummer

by a relatively low ratio of water to earth. Mudflows always have high ratios of water to earth. A mudflow that continues to gain water eventually becomes a muddy stream.

Triggers A sudden event may trigger mass wasting of a hillside that is unstable. Eventually, movement would occur without the triggering if conditions slowly became more unstable. Earthquakes commonly trigger landslides. The 1970 debris avalanche in Peru (see box 13.1) was one of thousands of landslides, mostly small ones, triggered by a quake. The worst damage from California’s 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake was in the nearly flat areas of San Francisco’s Marina District (where fires from broken gas mains ravaged buildings) and across the bay in Oakland. In Oakland, ground failure occurred beneath a two-tiered freeway, the upper level of which collapsed onto the lower level, crushing many vehicles (see chapter 7). Without the earthquake, movement may not have taken place for decades or centuries, and then mass wasting would have been slow enough so that corrective measures could have been taken to stabilize the ground. Much of the damage from China’s May 2008 earthquake (see chapter 7) was from landslides. There were thousands of them. Besides parts of towns being destroyed, landslide debris dammed parts of nine rivers, creating 24 new lakes. Because of potential catastrophic flooding from the failure of unstable dams, bypass trenches were built to reduce the pressure from rising water. Landslides often are triggered by heavy rainfall. The sudden influx of voluminous water quickly increases pore pressure in

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Creep (or soil creep) is very slow, downslope movement of soil. Shear forces, over time, are only slightly greater than shear strengths. The rate of movement is usually less than a centimeter per year and can be detected only by observations taken over months or years. When conditions are right, creep can take place along nearly horizontal slopes. Some indicators of creep are illustrated in figures 13.4 and 13.5. Two factors that contribute significantly to creep are water in the soil and daily cycles of freezing and thawing. As we have said, water-saturated ground facilitates movement of soil downhill. What keeps downslope movement from becoming more rapid in most areas is the presence of abundant grass or other plants that anchor the soil. (Understandably, overgrazing can severely damage sloping pastures.)

Curved tree trunk Tilted posts

Younger gravestone

Tilted fence posts

Bent and broken wall

Partially weathered bedrock bends downslope

Older gravestone

Soil Layered bedrock

FIGURE 13.4 Indicators of creep. After C. F. S. Sharpe

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Several processes contribute to soil creep. Particles are displaced in cycles of wetting and drying. The soil tends to swell when wet and contract when dry so that movement takes place in a manner similar to that of a freeze-thaw cycle. Burrowing worms and other creatures “stir” the soil and facilitate movement under gravity’s influence. The process is more active where the soil freezes and thaws during part of the year. During the winter in regions such as the northeastern United States, the temperature may rise above and fall below freezing once a day. When there is moisture in the soil, each freeze-thaw cycle moves soil particles a minute amount downhill, as shown in figure 13.6.

Sand grains to be followed

A Grass blade Soil with water Rock extends downward below freezing level A

Surface after freezing

B Original position

Former surface level B

Surface level when frozen

Falls vertically upon thawing

C

FIGURE 13.5 (A) Tilted gravestones in a churchyard at Lyme Regis, England (someone probably straightened the one upright gravestone). Grassy slope is inclined gently to the left. (B) Soil and partially weathered, nearly vertical sedimentary strata have crept downslope. (C) As a young tree grew, it grew vertically but was tilted by creeping soil. As it continued to grow, its new, upper part would grow vertically but in turn would be tilted. Photo A by C. C. Plummer; photo B by Frank M. Hanna; photo C © Parvinder Sethi

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Surface after thaw C

FIGURE 13.6 Downslope movement of soil, illustrated by following two sand grains (each less than a millimeter in size) during a freeze-thaw cycle. Movement downward might not be precisely vertical if adjacent grains interfere with each other.

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Creep is not as dramatic as landsliding. However, it can be a costly nuisance. If you have a home on creeping ground, you likely will have doors that stick, cracks in walls, broken pipes, and a driveway that will need repaving often. You will find that you are spending more time and money on repairs than does a person who lives on stable ground.

Flow Flow occurs when motion is taking place within a moving mass of unconsolidated or weakly consolidated material. Grains move relative to adjacent grains, or motion takes place along closely spaced, discrete fractures. The common varieties of flow—earthflow, debris flow, mudflow, and debris avalanche— are described in this section.

Earthflow In an earthflow, earth moves downslope as a viscous fluid; the process can be slow or rapid. Earthflows usually occur on hillsides that have a thick cover of soil in which finer grains are predominant, often after heavy rains have saturated the soil. Typically, the flowing mass remains covered by a blanket of vegetation, with a scarp (steep cut) developing where the moving debris has pulled away from the stationary upper slope. A landslide may be entirely an earthflow, as in figure 13.7, with soil particles moving past one another roughly parallel to the slope. Commonly, however, rotational sliding (slumping) takes place above the earthflow, as in figure 13.8 and the opening photo for this chapter. These figures each show a rotational slide (upper part) and an earthflow (lower part), and each can be called a slump-earthflow. In such cases, soil remains in a relatively coherent block or blocks that rotate downward and outward, forcing the soil below to flow.

Scarp

Hummocky surface

Flowing soil

Grass-covered surface

FIGURE 13.7 Earthflow. Soil flows beneath a blanket of vegetation.

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A hummocky (characterized by mounds and depressions) lobe usually forms at the toe or front of the earthflow where soil has accumulated. An earthflow can be active over a period of hours, days, or months; in some earthflows, intermittent movement continues for years. In March 1995, following an extraordinarily wet year, a slump-earthflow destroyed or severely damaged fourteen homes in the southern California coastal community of La Conchita (figure 13.8B). In January 2005, following 15 days of record-breaking rainfall, around 15% of the 1995 landslide remobilized (figure 13.11). Rapidly moving flow of soil killed 10 people and severely damaged or destroyed 36 houses. Because future landslides are likely, the town of La Conchita was abandoned. For details of the La Conchita landslides go to http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2005/1067/pdf/OF2005-1067.pdf. People can trigger earthflows by adding too much water to soil from septic tank systems or by overwatering lawns. In one case, in Los Angeles, a man departing on a long trip forgot to turn off the sprinkler system for his hillside lawn. The soil became saturated, and both house and lawn were carried downward on an earthflow whose lobe spread out over the highway below. Earthflows, like other kinds of landslides, can be triggered by undercutting at the base of a slope. The undercutting can be caused by waves breaking along shorelines or streams eroding and steepening the base of a slope. Along coastlines, mass wasting commonly destroys buildings. Entire housing developments and expensive homes built for a view of the ocean are lost. A home buyer who knows nothing of geology may not realize that the sea cliff is there because of the relentless erosion of waves along the shoreline. Nor is the person likely to be aware that a steepened slope creates the potential for landslides. Bulldozers can undercut the base of a slope more rapidly than wave erosion, and such oversteepening of slopes by human activity has caused many landslides. Unless careful engineering measures are taken at the time a cut is made, road cuts or platforms carved into hillsides for houses may bring about disaster (figure 13.21).

Solifluction and Permafrost One variety of earthflow is usually associated with colder climates. Solifluction is the flow of water-saturated soil over impermeable material. Because the impermeable material beneath the soil prevents water from draining freely, the soil between the vegetation cover and the impermeable material becomes saturated (figure 13.9). Even a gentle slope is susceptible to movement under these conditions. The impermeable material beneath the saturated soil can be either impenetrable bedrock or, as is more common, permafrost, ground that remains frozen for many years. Most solifluction takes place in areas of permanently frozen ground, such as in Alaska and northern Canada. Permafrost occurs at depths ranging from a few centimeters to a few meters beneath the surface. The ice in permafrost is a cementing agent for the soil. Permafrost is as solid as concrete.

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Scarps

Rotated block

A Flowing soil Hummocky toe

B

FIGURE 13.8 Earthflow with rotational sliding (slumping). (A) Soil in the upper part of the diagram remained mostly intact as it rotated downward in blocks. Soil in the lower portion flowed. (B) A slump-earthflow destroyed several houses in March 1995, at La Conchita, California. Photo B by Robert L. Schuster, U.S. Geological Survey

Winter

Summer

Slowly flowing soil

Zone that thaws during summer

Soil is frozen throughout

Water-saturated soil Permafrost

FIGURE 13.9 Solifluction due to thawing of ice-saturated soil. Solifluction lobes in northwestern Alaska. Photo by C. C. Plummer

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Permafrost in northern Canada was dated in 2008 as having formed approximately 740,000 years ago—much older than scientists believed possible. During that time, there have been two periods during which world climate was warmer than at present. This implies that the loss of permafrost during our ongoing global warming may not be as great as projected. Above the permafrost is a zone that, if the soil is saturated, is frozen during the winter and indistinguishable from the underlying permafrost. When this zone thaws during the summer, the water, along with water from rain and runoff, cannot percolate downward through the permafrost, and so the slopes become susceptible to solifluction. As solifluction movement is not rapid enough to break up the overlying blanket of vegetation into blocks, the watersaturated soil flows downslope, pulling vegetation along with it and forming a wrinkled surface. Gradually, the soil collects at the base of the slope, where the vegetated surface bulges into a hummocky lobe. Solifluction is not the only hazard associated with permafrost. Great expanses of flat terrain in Arctic and subarctic climates become swampy during the summer because of permafrost, making overland travel very difficult. Building and maintaining roads is an engineering headache (figure 13.10). In the preliminary stages of planning the trans-Alaska pipeline, a road was bulldozed across permafrost terrain during the winter, removing the vegetation from the rock-hard ground. It was an excellent truck route during the winter, but when summer came, the road became a quagmire several hundred kilometers long. The strip can never be used by vehicles as planned, nor will the vegetation return for many decades. Building structures on permafrost terrain presents serious problems. For instance, heat

from a building can melt underlying permafrost; the building then sinks into the mud. To learn more about permafrost, go to Permafrost from the Geological Survey of Canada, http://gsc. nrcan.gc.ca/permafrost/index_e.php. (From the home page you can access, among other topics, a discussion of permafrost and climate change.)

Debris Flow and Mudflow A debris flow is flow involving soil in which coarse material (gravel, boulders) is predominant. A debris flow can be like an earthflow and travel relatively short distances to the base of a slope or, if there is a lot of water, a debris flow can behave like a mudflow and flow rapidly, traveling considerable distance in a channel. Rapidly moving debris flows can be extremely devastating. The steep mountains that rise above Los Angeles and other southern California urban centers are sources of sometimes catastrophic debris flows (figure 13.11). In December 2003, dozens of

FIGURE 13.11 FIGURE 13.10 A railroad built on permafrost terrain in Alaska. Photo by Lynn A. Yehle, U.S. Geological Survey

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The portion of the La Conchita landslide that remobilized and killed ten people in January 2005. The U.S. Geological Survey classified this as a debris flow because of the abundance of coarse soil mixed with mud. Note that the flow overtopped the metal wall (upper left) put up to protect the town. Photo © Kevork Djansezian/Wide World Photos

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E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 1 3 . 2

Los Angeles, A Mobile Society*

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he following satirical newspaper column was written by humorist Art Buchwald in 1978, a year, in which southern California had many landslides because of unusually wet weather. Los Angeles—I came to Los Angeles last week for rest and recreation, only to discover that it had become a rain forest. I didn’t realize how bad it was until I went to dinner at a friend’s house. I had the right address, but when I arrived there was nothing there. I went to a neighboring house where I found a man bailing out his swimming pool. I beg your pardon, I said. Could you tell me where the Cables live? “They used to live above us on the hill. Then, about two years ago, their house slid down in the mud, and they lived next door to us. I think it was last Monday, during the storm, that their house slid again, and now they live two streets below us, down there. We were sorry to see them go—they were really nice neighbors.” I thanked him and slid straight down the hill to the new location of the Cables’ house. Cable was clearing out the mud from his car. He apologized for not giving me the new address and explained, “Frankly, I didn’t know until this morning whether the house would stay here or continue sliding down a few more blocks.” Cable, I said, you and your wife are intelligent people, why do you build your house on the top of a canyon, when you know that during a rainstorm it has a good chance of sliding away? “We did it for the view. It really was fantastic on a clear night up there. We could sit in our Jacuzzi and see all of Los Angeles, except of course when there were brush fires. “Even when our house slid down two years ago, we still had a great sight of the airport. Now I’m not too sure what kind of view we’ll have because of the house in front of us, which slid down with ours at the same time.” But why don’t you move to safe ground so that you don’t have to worry about rainstorms?

“We’ve thought about it. But once you live high in a canyon, it’s hard to move to the plains. Besides, this house is built solid and has about three more good mudslides in it.” Still, it must be kind of hairy to sit in your home during a deluge and wonder where you’ll wind up next. Don’t you ever have the desire to just settle down in one place? “It’s hard for people who don’t live in California to understand how we people out here think. Sure we have floods, and fire and drought, but that’s the price you have to pay for living the good life. When Esther and I saw this house, we knew it was a dream come true. It was located right on the tippy top of the hill, way up there. We would wake up in the morning and listen to the birds, and eat breakfast out on the patio and look down on all the smog. “Then, after the first mudslide, we found ourselves living next to people. It was an entirely different experience. But by that time we were ready for a change. Now we’ve slid again and we’re in a whole new neighborhood. You can’t do that if you live on solid ground. Once you move into a house below Sunset Boulevard, you’re stuck there for the rest of your life. “When you live on the side of a hill in Los Angeles, you at least know it’s not going to last forever.” Then, in spite of what’s happened, you don’t plan to move out? “Are you crazy? You couldn’t replace a house like this in L.A. for $500,000.” What happens if it keeps raining and you slide down the hill again? “It’s no problem. Esther and I figure if we slide down too far, we’ll just pick up and go back to the top of the hill, and start all over again; that is, if the hill is still there after the earthquake.”

debris flows took place in the San Bernadino Mountains. The debris flows followed a typical scenario that began during the hot, dry summer. Widespread forest fires scorched southern California, killing trees and ground cover. The anchoring effect of vegetation was gone. Geologists predicted that steep slopes underlain with thick debris were ripe for producing debris flows. Heavy rains would saturate the soil and trigger the debris flows. Heavy rains did indeed come in late December. On Christmas day, one of many debris flows destroyed a church camp, killing fourteen people. The year 1978 was particularly bad for debris flows in southern California (box 13.2). One flow roared through a Los Angeles suburb carrying almost as many cars as large boulders. A sturdily built house withstood the onslaught but began filling with muddy debris. Two of its occupants were pinned to the wall of a bedroom and could do nothing as the room filled

slowly with mud. The mud stopped rising just as it was reaching their heads. Hours later they were rescued. (John McPhee’s The Control of Nature, listed in Exploring Web Resources on this book’s website [www.mhhe.com/carlson9e], has a highly readable account of the 1978 debris flows in southern California.) Debris flows (and mudflows) illustrate the interplay between Earth systems: Soil is produced through weathering— interaction of the atmosphere and the geosphere. Vegetation (the biosphere) grows in the soil and adds shear strength to stabilize the hillside. The atmosphere heats and dries the vegetation and produces thunderstorms, which ignite forest fires. Part of the biosphere is destroyed. Atmospheric conditions bring heavy rain and part of the hydrosphere mixes with the soil to produce the debris flows.

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*Reprinted by permission of the author

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A mudflow is a flowing mixture of soil and water, usually moving down a channel (figure 13.12). It differs from a debris flow in that fine-grained (sand, silt, clay) material is predominant. A mudflow can be visualized as a stream with the consistency of a thick milkshake. Most of the solid particles in the slurry are clay and silt (hence, the muddy appearance), but coarser sediment commonly is part of the mixture. A slurry of soil and water forms after a heavy rainfall or other influx of water and begins moving down a slope. Most mudflows quickly become channeled into valleys. They then move downvalley like a stream except that, because of the heavy load of sediment, they are more viscous. Mud moves more slowly than a stream but, because of its high viscosity, can transport boulders, automobiles, and even locomotives. Houses in the path of a mudflow will be filled with mud, if not broken apart and carried away. Mudflows are most likely to occur in places where soil is not protected by a vegetative cover. For this reason, mudflows are more likely to occur in arid regions than in wet climates. A hillside in a desert environment, where it may not have rained for many years, may be covered with a blanket of loose material. With sparse desert vegetation offering little protection, a sudden thunderstorm with drenching rain can rapidly saturate the soil and create a mudflow in minutes. Mudflows frequently occur on young volcanoes that are littered with ash. Water from heavy rains mixes with pyroclastic debris, as at Mount Pinatubo in 1991 (see chapter 1). For over a decade after the big eruption, mudflows near Mount Pinatubo continue to cost lives and destroy property. Water also can come from glaciers that are melted by lava or hot pyroclastic debris, as occurred at Mount St. Helens in 1980 (figure 13.13) and at Colombia’s Nevado del Ruiz in 1985, which cost 23,000 lives (described in chapter 1). Like debris flows, mudflows also occur after forest fires destroy slope vegetation that normally anchors soil in place.

FIGURE 13.12 A dried mudflow in the Peruvian Andes. Photo by C. C. Plummer

Debris Avalanche The fastest variety of debris flow is a debris avalanche, a very rapidly moving, turbulent mass of debris, air, and water. The most deadly modern example is the one that buried Yungay (described in box 13.1). Some geologists have suggested that in very rapidly moving rock avalanches, air trapped under the rock mass creates an air cushion that reduces friction. This could explain why some landslides reach speeds of several hundred kilometers per hour. But other geologists have contended that the rock mass is too turbulent to permit such an air cushion to form.

Rockfalls and Rockslides Rockfall On May 3, 2003, New Hampshire lost its beloved symbol, the Old Man of the Mountain (figure 13.14), to rockfall. The Granite State’s citizens associated resolute individualism with the rugged features outlined by the face high on a cliff. But the relentless

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FIGURE 13.13 Man examining a 75-meter-long bridge on Washington state highway 504, across the North Fork of the Toutle River. The bridge was washed out by mudflow during the May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens. The steel structure was carried about 0.5 kilometers downstream and partially buried by the mudflow. Photo by Robert L. Schuster, U.S. Geological Survey

work of water and frost-wedging enlarged the cracks in the granite until the overhanging rock broke apart. When a block of bedrock breaks off and falls freely or bounces down a cliff, it is a rockfall (figure 13.15). Cliffs may form naturally by the undercutting action of a river, wave action, or glacial erosion. Highway or other construction projects may also oversteepen slopes. Bedrock commonly has cracks (joints) or other planes of weakness such as foliation (in

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FIGURE 13.14 The Old Man of the Mountain in New Hampshire. (A) The profile of the face of a man was a product of weathering and erosion controlled largely by subhorizontal joints in granite. This is the profile that appeared on license plates and New Hampshire publications. (B) After succumbing to continuing erosion, features of the Old Man broke apart and became a rockfall on May 3, 2003. Photos © Jim Cole/AP/Wide World Photos

Frost wedging Original position of falling block Rockfall Wave erosion undercuts rock Rockfall

FIGURE 13.15 Two examples of rockfall.

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metamorphic rocks) or sedimentary bedding planes. Blocks of rock will break off along these planes. In colder climates, rock is effectively broken apart by frost wedging (as explained in chapter 12). Commonly, an apron of fallen rock fragments, called talus, accumulates at the base of a cliff (figure 13.16). A spectacular rockfall took place in Yosemite National Park in the summer of 1996, killing one man and injuring several other people. The rockfall originated from near Glacier Point (the place where the photo for figure 19.1 was taken). Two huge slabs (weighing approximately 80,000 tons) of an overhanging arch broke loose just seconds apart. (The arch was a product of exfoliation and broke loose along a sheet joint; see chapter 12.) The slabs slid a short distance over steep rock from which they were launched outward, as if from a ski jump, away from the vertical cliffs. The slabs fell free for around 500 meters (1,700 feet) and hit the valley floor 30 meters out from the base of the cliff (you would not have been hit if you were standing at the base of the cliff). They shattered upon impact and created a dust cloud (figure 13.17) that obscured visibility for hours. A powerful air blast was created as air between the rapidly falling rock, and the ground was compressed. The debris-laden wind felled a swath of trees between the newly deposited talus and a nature center building. In 1999, another rockfall in the same area killed one rock climber and injured three others. In October 2008, another rockfall landed at Yosemite’s Curry Village. Three people were injured and several tent cabins were destroyed at this lodging and dining complex. For an excellent and thorough report, go to the U.S. Geological Survey site Rockfall in Yosemite, http://pubs.usgs .gov/of/1999/ofr-99-0385/.

FIGURE 13.16 Talus. Photo by C. C. Plummer

Rockslide and Rock Avalanche A rockslide is, as the term suggests, the rapid sliding of a mass of bedrock along an inclined surface of weakness, such as a bedding plane, a major fracture in the rock, or a foliation plane (as in box 13.3). Once sliding begins, a rock slab usually breaks up into rubble. Like rockfalls, rockslides can be caused by undercutting at the base of the slope from erosion or construction. A classic example of a rockslide took place in 1925 in the Gros Ventre Mountains of Wyoming. Sliding occurred along a sedimentary bedding plane. Exceptionally heavy rains triggered the rockslide after water seeped into a layer of sandstone (figure 13.18). The high pore pressure of water in the sandstone had the effect of “lifting” the sandstone from the wet surface of the shale. Shear resistance of the sandstone was greatly reduced. The layers of sedimentary rock were inclined roughly parallel to the hillside. The rock layers overlying the shale and their soil cover slid into the valley, blocking the river. A rancher on horseback saw the ground beneath him begin to move and had to gallop to safe ground. The slide itself merely created a lake, but the natural dam broke two years later, and the resulting flood destroyed the small town of Kelly several kilometers downstream. Several residents who were standing on a bridge watching the floodwaters come down the valley were killed.

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FIGURE 13.17 Small dust clouds linger high above Yosemite Valley where rock slabs broke loose and fell to the valley floor, creating upon impact, the debris-laden blast of air climbing up the other side of the valley. The photo was taken by a rock climber on a nearby cliff. Photo by Ed Youmans

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Some rockslides travel only a few meters before halting at the base of a slope. In country with high relief, however, a rockslide may travel hundreds or thousands of meters before reaching a valley floor. If movement becomes very rapid, the rockslide may break up and become a rock avalanche. A rock avalanche is a very rapidly moving, turbulent mass of broken-up bedrock. Movement in a rock avalanche is flowage on a grand scale. The only difference between a rock avalanche and a debris avalanche is that a rock avalanche begins its journey as bedrock. Ultimately, a rockslide or rock avalanche comes to rest as the terrain becomes less steep. Sometimes the mass of rock fills the bottom of a valley and creates a natural dam. If the rock mass suddenly enters a lake or bay, it can create a huge

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wave that destroys lives and property far beyond the area of the original landslide. Box 13.4 describes a disastrous rock avalanche that took place in Italy.

UNDERWATER LANDSLIDES The steeper parts of the ocean floors sometimes have very large landslides. Prehistoric ones are indicated by large masses of jumbled debris on the deep-ocean floor. One, off the coast of the Hawaiian Islands, is much larger than any landslide mass on land. The debris from what is called the Nuuanu debris avalanche covers an area of 5,000 square kilometers

Water saturates sandstone

B

Layer of shale Gros Ventre River

C

A

FIGURE 13.18

Sliding along top of wet shale layer Slide debris dams river

(A) Photo of Gros Ventre slide. (B) and (C) Diagram of the Gros Ventre, Wyoming, slide. Photo by D. A. Rahm, courtesy of Rahm Memorial Collection, Western Washington University. B and C after W. C. Alden, U.S. Geological Survey

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E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 1 3 . 3

Failure of the St. Francis Dam—A Tragic Consequence of Geology Ignored

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n 1928, the St. Francis Dam near Los Angeles, California, broke, only a year after it had been completed (box figure 1). The concrete dam was about 60 meters (200 feet) high, and the wall of water that roared down the valley killed about 400 people in two counties. The failure of this ill-conceived dam destroyed the reputation of its chief designer, William Mulholland. Mulholland and his cronies had earlier in the 1900s become rich by building an unsurpassed but controversial system of aqueducts to bring (some say, steal) water from eastern California and the Colorado River to transform previously arid southern California. This led to the booming growth of Los Angeles and San Diego as well as unprecedented agricultural productivity. The investigation following the disaster pointed to a number of possible causes. Some were design and construction blunders. Three geologically related problems, each of which could have caused the dam to break up, were ignored by the builders (box figure 2). These were: •

The northwestern abutment of the dam was built on conglomerate. Investigators were astonished to discover that

samples of that conglomerate would disintegrate when placed in water. •

The dam was on a fault separating sedimentary and metamorphic rock. Water, under high pressure, deep in the reservoir could have blasted out ground-up rock within the fault.

The southeastern abutment had been built on laminated mica schist (a metamorphic rock). The laminations are foliation planes. These planes of weakness are parallel to this side of the valley.

Landslide scars in the valley should have been ample warning to the builders that the metamorphic rock moved even under only the force of gravity. A competent engineer worries as much about the stability of the rock against which a dam is built as about the strength of the dam itself. Water pressure at the base of the dam exerted a force of 5.7 tons per square foot against the dam. With pressure such as this, the dam and part of the bordering foliated rock could easily slide. Movement would be parallel to the weak foliation planes, just as if the dam had been anchored against a giant deck of cards.

BOX 13.3 ■ FIGURE 1 The St. Francis Dam, California. Photo (colorized) taken the day after the disaster. Note fragments of the destroyed dam in front of and to right of the standing section. A landslide scar is visible at right side of the picture. Red conglomerate (at left) is separated from gray mica schist (at right) by a fault. Photo by the C. H.

Lee Collection, U. C. Water Resources Center Archives, Berkeley, California, colorized by P. Horton

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BOX 13.3 ■ FIGURE 2 Visual reconstruction of the St. Francis Dam done by the Governor’s Commission investigating the disaster. It illustrates the geologic setting for the dam as well as the position of large fragments of the dam before its destruction. Block 1 is the central part of the dam left standing and shown in figure 1. Block 5 is the block found in front of the standing section shown in figure 1. It likely was carried to that position by the rockslide, which took place in the white area above the “approximate rock surface after failure.” Block 16 was carried almost a mile downstream by the flood.

In the 1980s, Professor David Rogers of University of Missouri–Rolla reinvestigated the disaster in detail from a geologic perspective. He presents compelling evidence that a rockslide took place in the schist extending from above the dam to below the abutment. Movement took place along planes of weakness in the schist. The landslide slid under the southeastern part of the dam as well as into the reservoir. The portion of the dam overlying the schist was broken into several large blocks (these are the numbered blocks of the visual reconstruction shown in box figure 2). The blocks, along with landslide debris, were transported downstream by the ensuing flood of water from the reservoir. Simultaneously, a high wave was created as the landslide entered the reservoir. The wave traveled across the reservoir to the other side of the dam. There, water undercut the dam above the weak conglomerate, thus beginning the breakup of the northwestern portion of the dam.

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The St. Francis Dam disaster is just one of many instances in which ignorance of geology cost lives or fortune. Had competent professional geologic consultation been obtained, it is unlikely that building of the dam would have proceeded.

Additional Resource Reassessment of the St. Francis Dam failure by J. David Rogers of University of Missouri–Rolla •

http://web.mst.edu/~rogersda/st_francis_dam/reassessment_of_st_ francis_dam_failure.pdf

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CHAPTER 13

Mass Wasting

E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 1 3 . 4

A Rockslide Becomes a Rock Avalanche which Creates a Giant Wave that Destroys Towns

A

side of the valley. Sudden displacement of water in the Vaiont Reservoir created a giant wave. The 245 meter (over two football fields) high wave overtopped the Vaiont Dam. It was the world's highest dam, rising 265 meters (870 feet) above the valley floor. Twenty-five hundred people were killed in the villages that the water flooded in the valleys below. The dam was not destroyed (box figures 1 and 2), a tribute to excellent engineering, but the men in charge of the building project were convicted of criminal negligence for ignoring the landslide hazards. The chief engineer committed suicide.

rock avalanche took place in the Italian Alps in 1963 having tragic consequences. A huge layer (1.8 kilometers long and 1 kilometer wide) of limestone broke loose parallel to its bedding planes (box figures 1 and 2). What began as a translational slide involved around 270 million cubic meters. Some of the original slab remained more or less intact as it traveled downward as a high-speed rockslide. However, most of the slabs broke into debris. The debris avalanche moved up to 100 kilometers per hour and, after plowing through the reservoir, deposited rock as high as 140 meters up the opposite

Piave River

Longarone

A

Dam

Dam

Bedding surface over which slide took place

B

BOX 13.4 ■ FIGURE 2 Upper lim it of de under tre bris es

(A) Map of the Vaiont area. (B) Photo showing the upper portion of the downstream face of the dam within a steep, narrow valley. It was taken in 2004 from Longarone, one of the largest towns along the Piave River destroyed by the flood. Visualize the 175-meter wall of water overtopping the dam. Photo by C. C. Plummer

BOX 13.4 ■ FIGURE 1 Part of the 270 million cubic meters of rock from the rock avalanche that filled the former resrvoir behind the Vaiont Dam. The dam, at the right of the photo, was the world's highest when built. Most of the dam face is buried under debris. Part of the bedding plane over which sliding took place can be seen on the mountainside. For a view from the upstream side of the landslide debris, go to www.cnsm.csulb.edu/departments/geology/people/ bperry/Mass%20Wasting/VaiontDam.htm. Photo by Earle F. McBride

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FIGURE 13.19 GLORIA seafloor image showing landslide blocks extending to over 100 miles (160 kilometers) from Oahu and Molokai islands. GLORIA is a long-range sonar that gives an oblique view of the sea floor. Individual blocks are up to 12 miles (20 kilometers) across. For more information go to: http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/posters /underlandslides.html or www.mbari.org/volcanism /Hawaii/HR-Landslides.htm. GLORIA images by Western Coastal & Marine Geology/U.S. Geological Survey

(figure 13.19), larger than all of the present Hawaiian Islands combined, and includes volcanic rock blocks several kilometers across. Another giant landslide off the south coast of the island of Hawaii took place around 100,000 years ago. This appears to have created an incredibly large tsunami that deposited coral fragments to elevations over 300 meters on some Hawaiian islands. One very large landslide evidently took place off the coast of northeastern Canada in 1929 following an earthquake. It systematically cut a series of trans-Atlantic telephone and telegraph lines. The existence and extent of the event were inferred decades later by analyzing the timing of the telephone con-

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versation cutoffs and the distance of cables from the earthquake’s epicenter. The underwater debris avalanche, described as a turbidity current in chapter 3 (see figure 3.11), traveled over 700 kilometers in thirteen hours at speeds from 15 to 60 kilometers per hour. The lengths of the sections of cable carried away indicate that the debris flow was up to 100 kilometers wide. Scientists have recently found that a very large area of thick sediment off of the central part of the East Coast of the United States is unstable and could become a giant submarine landslide. If it does go, it very likely will generate a giant tsunami that could be disastrous to coastal communities in Europe as well as North America.

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CHAPTER 13

Water trapped in soil causes movement, pushing down retaining wall.

Mass Wasting

Before construction

Water drains through pipe, allowing wall to keep slope from moving. Sprinkler adds water to soil

Building adds weight to slope Fill Vegetation removed Steepening of slope for road cut

FIGURE 13.21 Use of drains to help prevent mass wasting.

FIGURE 13.20 A hillside becomes vulnerable to mass wasting due to construction activities.

PREVENTING LANDSLIDES Preventing Mass Wasting of Soil Mass movements of soil usually can be prevented. Proper engineering is essential when the natural environment of a hillside is altered by construction. As shown in figure 13.20, construction generally makes a slope more susceptible to mass wasting of soil in several ways: (1) the base of the slope is undercut, removing the natural support for the upper part of the slope; (2) vegetation is removed during construction; (3) buildings constructed on the upper part of a slope add weight to the potential slide; and (4) extra water may be allowed to seep into the soil. Some preventive measures can be taken during construction. A retaining wall is usually built where a cut has been made in the slope, but this alone is seldom as effective a deterrent to downslope movement as people hope. If, in addition, drain pipes are put through the retaining wall and into the hillside, water can percolate through and drain away rather than collecting in the soil behind the wall (figure 13.21). Without drains, excess water results in decreased shear strength and the whole soggy mass can easily burst through the wall.

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FIGURE 13.22 A concrete shed with a sloping roof protects a highway from avalanches in the Canadian Rockies. Photo by C. W. Montgomery

Another practical preventive measure is to avoid oversteepening the slope. The hillside can be cut back in a series of terraces rather than in a single steep cut. This reduces not only the slope angle but also the shear force by removing much of the overlying material. It also prevents loose material (such as boulders dislodged from the top of the cut) from rolling to the base. Road cuts constructed in this way are usually reseeded with rapidly growing grass or plants whose roots help anchor the slope. A vegetation cover also minimizes erosion from running water. Some roads and railroads in steep, mountainous areas are covered by sheds with sloping, reinforced concrete roofs (figure 13.22).

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www.mhhe.com/carlson9e Stable Planes of weakness in bedrock (in this case, bedding planes of sedimentary rock)

Unstable

A

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Portion of hill removed

B

FIGURE 13.23 (A) Cross section of a hill showing a relatively safe road cut on the left and a hazardous road cut on the right. (B) The same hazardous road cut after removal of rock that might slide.

Sliding debris and snow avalanches pass safely overhead rather than block a road and endanger lives.

Preventing Rockfalls and Rockslides on Highways Rockslides and rockfalls are a major problem on highways built through mountainous country. Steep slopes and cliffs are created when road cuts are blasted and bulldozed into mountain sides. Hole If the bedrock has planes of weakPlanes of weakness A ness (such as joints, bedding Road cut planes, or foliation planes), the orientation of these planes relative to the road cut determines whether there is a rockslide hazard (as in figure 13.23A). If the planes of Nut placed on threads weakness are inclined into the hill, on end of cable Steel plate there is no chance of a rockslide. On the other hand, where the B planes of weakness are approximately parallel to the slope of the hillside, a rockslide may occur. Various techniques are used to C prevent rockslides. By doing a detailed geologic study of an area D before a road is built, builders might avoid a hazard by choosing the least dangerous route for the road. If a road cut must be made through bedE rock that appears prone to sliding, all of the rock that might slide could be removed (sometimes at great expense), as shown in FIGURE 13.24 figure 13.23B. “Stitching” a slope to keep bedrock from sliding along planes of weakness. (A) Holes In some instances, slopes prone to rock sliding have been are drilled through unstable layers into stable rock. (B) Expanded view of one hole. A cable is fed into the hole and cement is pumped into the bottom of the hole and “stitched” in place by the technique shown in figure 13.24. allowed to harden. (C) A steel plate is placed over the cable and a nut tightened. Spraying a roadside exposure with cement may retard a land(D) Tightening all the nuts pulls unstable layers together and anchors them in stable slide in some instances (figure 13.24E). Fences or railing on the bedrock. (E) Road cut in Acapulco, Mexico, stabilized by “stitching” and sprayed concrete. Photo by C. C. Plummer side of a road can keep minor rockfalls from blocking the road.

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CHAPTER 13

Mass Wasting

Radio-transmitted, real-time monitoring of areas where mass wasting is active is valuable for predicting when a mass movement is about to speed up and be dangerous. Five sites along U.S. Highway 50 in California’s Sierra Nevada are monitored by means of instruments placed at steep mass wasting sites by the U.S. Geologic Survey, and the data is immediately available on the Internet. The instruments include buried pore pressure gauges as well as motion sensors that can tell when a slow-moving mass is starting to move faster.

Summary Mass wasting is the movement of a mass of soil or bedrock toward the base of a slope. Soil, as used in this chapter, is unconsolidated or weakly consolidated material, regardless of particle size. If soil is predominantly fine material, it is earth; if predominantly coarse, it is debris. Movement can take place as a flow, slide, or fall. Gravity is the driving force. The component of gravitational force that propels mass wasting is the shear force, which occurs parallel to a slope. The resistance to that force is the shear strength of rock or soil. If shear force exceeds shear strength, mass wasting takes place. Water is usually an important factor in mass wasting. A number of other factors determine whether movement will occur and, if it does, the rate of movement. The slowest type of movement, creep, occurs mostly on relatively gentle slopes, usually aided by water in the soil. In colder climates, repeated freezing and thawing of water within the soil contributes to creep. Landsliding is a general term for more rapid mass wasting of rock, soil, or both. Flows include earthflows, debris flows, mudflows, and debris avalanches. Earthflows, in which finer-grained material is predominant, vary greatly in velocity, although they are not as rapid as debris avalanches, which are turbulent masses of debris, water, and air. Solifluction, a special variety of earthflow, usually takes place in arctic or subarctic climates, where ground is permanently frozen (permafrost). Debris flows involve coarser material than present in earthflows. Typically, they travel farther than earthflows and, if a lot of water is present, travel long distances in channels and behave similarly to mudflows. A mudflow is a slurry of mostly clay, silt, and water. Most mudflows flow in channels much as streams do. Rockfall is the fall of broken rock down a vertical or nearvertical slope. A rockslide is a slab of rock sliding down a lessthan-vertical surface. Landslides also take place underwater. The larger ones of these are vastly bigger than any that have occurred on land.

The best way to avoid mass wasting damage to or destruction of your house is to get information on the susceptibility of the land to mass wasting before building or buying. A starting place, if you live in the United States, is to contact your state’s geological survey (or equivalent organization) through www .stategeologists.org/.

Terms to Remember creep (soil creep) 332 debris 327 debris avalanche 338 debris flow 336 earth 327 earthflow 334 fall 327 flow 327 landslide 326 mass wasting 326 mud 327 mudflow 338 permafrost 334

relief 330 rock avalanche 341 rockfall 338 rockslide 340 rotational slide (slump) 330 shear force 330 shear strength 330 slide 327 slump 330 soil 327 solifluction 334 talus 340 translational slide 327

Testing Your Knowledge Use the following questions to prepare for exams based on this chapter. 1. Describe the effect on shear strength of the following: a. slope angle

b. orientation of planes of weakness

c. water in soil

d. vegetation

2. Compare the shear force to the force of gravity (drawing diagrams similar to figure 13.2) for the following situations: a. a vertical cliff

b. a flat horizontal plane

c. a 45° slope 3. How does a rotational slide differ from a translational slide? 4. What role does water play in each of the types of mass wasting? 5. Why is solifluction more common in colder climates than in temperate climates? 6. List and explain the key factors that control mass wasting. 7. What is the slowest type of mass wasting process? a. debris flow

b. rockslide

c. creep

d. rockfall

e. avalanche

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www.mhhe.com/carlson9e 8. The largest landslide has taken place a. on the sea floor

b. in the Andes

c. on active volcanoes

d. in the Himalaya

9. A descending mass moving downslope as a viscous fluid is referred to as a a. fall

b. landslide

c. flow

d. slide

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3. Why isn’t the land surface of Earth flat after millions of years of erosion by mass wasting as well as by other erosional agents? 4. Can any of the indicators of creep be explained by processes other than mass wasting?

Exploring Web Resources

10. The driving force behind all mass wasting processes is a. gravity

b. slope angle

c. type of bedrock material

d. presence of water

e. vegetation 11. The resistance to movement or deformation of soil is its a. mass

b. shear strength

c. shear force

d. density

12. Flow of water-saturated soil over impermeable material is called a. solifluction

b. flow

c. slide

d. fall

13. A flowing mixture of soil and water, usually moving down a channel is called a a. mudflow

b. slide

c. fall

d. earthflow

14. An apron of fallen rock fragments that accumulates at the base of a cliff is called a. bedrock

b. sediment

c. soil

d. talus

www.mhhe.com/carlson9e McGraw-Hill’s website for Physical Geology: Earth Revealed 9th edition features a wide variety of study aids, such as animations, quizzes, answers to the end-of-chapter multiple choice questions, additional readings and Google Earth exercises, Internet exercises, and much more. The URLs listed in this book are given as links in chapter web pages, making it easy to go to a website without typing in its URL. http://landslides.usgs.gov/ Geologic hazards, landslides, U.S. Geological Survey. You can get to several useful sites from here. Reports on recent landslides can be accessed by clicking on the ones listed. Click on “National Landslide Information Center” for photos of landslides, including some described in this chapter. Watch animation of a landslide. You can access sources of information on landslides and other geologic features for any state, usually from a state’s geologic survey. http://landslides.nrcan.gc.ca/ Landslides. Geological Survey of Canada’s site has generalized descriptions of significant Canadian landslides.

15. How does construction destabilize a slope? a. adds weight to the top of the slope b. decreases water content of the slope c. adds weight to the bottom of the slope d. increases the shear strength of the slope 16. How can landslides be prevented during construction? (choose all that apply)

Animation This chapter includes the following animation on the book’s website at www.mhhe.com/carlson9e. 13.1 Types of Earth movement

a. retaining walls b. cut steeper slopes c. install water drainage systems d. add vegetation

Expanding Your Knowledge 1. Why do people fear earthquakes, hurricanes, and tornadoes more than they fear landslides? 2. If you were building a house on a cliff, what would you look for to ensure that your house would not be destroyed through mass wasting?

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H

A

P

T

E

R

14 Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks Relationship to Earth Systems Sediment Transportation Deposition Preservation Lithification

Types of Sedimentary Rocks Detrital Rocks Breccia and Conglomerate Sandstone The Fine-Grained Rocks

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks Carbonate Rocks Chert Evaporites

Organic Sedimentary Rocks Coal

The Origin of Oil and Gas Sedimentary Structures Fossils Formations Interpretation of Sedimentary Rocks Source Area Environment of Deposition Transgression and Regression Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Rocks

Summary

T

he rock cycle is a conceptual model of the constant recycling of rocks as they form, are destroyed, and then reform. We began our discussion of the rock cycle with igneous rock (chapters 10 and 11), and we now discuss sedimentary rocks. In this chapter, we first describe sediment and sedimentary rock, and then discuss sedimentary structures and fossils. We also consider the

Eroded sandstone formations formed from ancient sand dunes, North Coyote Buttes, Arizona. Photo © Doug Sherman

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Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks

Sediment and sedimentary rocks are important components of the solid Earth system. They are especially important at the surface of Earth, where sedimentary rocks account for the majority of exposed bedrock. The atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere are deeply intertwined in the creation of sediment and in it becoming sedimentary rock. Most sediment is the product of weathering of rocks exposed to air; the important role that the atmosphere plays was described in chapter 12. Wind is one of the agents by which sediment is transported. Sand is skipped along the ground, moving in ripples and often accumulating into sand dunes. Finer sedimentary particles are carried as dust by the atmosphere and may travel great distances before settling out on land or sea. The hydrosphere plays a role in the making of nearly all sedimentary rocks. Typically, sediment is created during weathering with water being a vital ingredient in the process. Sediment is further modified during transportation by streams and ocean currents. In colder regions, glaciers (frozen water) move sediment. The conversion of sediment to sedimentary rock

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Sediment

Weathering and erosion

Solidification

ism

Relationship to Earth Systems

IGNEOUS ROCK

Metamorph

importance of sedimentary rocks for interpreting the history of Earth and their tremendous economic importance. Metamorphic rocks, the third major rock type, are the subject of chapter 15. You saw in chapter 12 how weathering produces sediment. In this chapter, we explain more about sediment origin, as well as the erosion, transportation, sorting, deposition, and eventual transformation of sediments to sedimentary rock. Because they have such diverse origins, sedimentary rocks are difficult to classify. We divide them into detrital, chemical, and organic sedimentary rocks, but this classification does not do justice to the great variety of sedimentary rock types. Furthermore, despite their great variety, only three sedimentary rocks are very common—shale, sandstone, and limestone. Sedimentary rocks contain sedimentary structures such as ripple marks, crossbeds, and mud cracks, as well as the fossilized remains of extinct organisms. These features, combined with knowledge of the sediment types within the rock and the sequence of rock layers, allow geologists to interpret the environments in which the rocks were deposited. About threefourths of the surface of the continents is blanketed by sedimentary rock, providing geologists with the information they need to reconstruct a detailed history of the surface of Earth and its biosphere. Sedimentary rocks are also economically important. Most building materials such as stone, concrete, silica (glass), gypsum (plaster), and iron are quarried and mined from sedimentary rock. Salt is also a sedimentary product and, in many places in the world, supplies of fresh water are pumped from sedimentary layers. Coal, crude oil, and natural gas, the fossil fuels that drove the industrial revolution and that power our technological society, are all formed within and extracted from sedimentary rock.

Magma

Lithification

SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Partial melting

METAMORPHIC ROCK

Metamorphism

Rock in mantle

usually involves water. Water carrying dissolved material flows between grains of sediment. Precipitation of the dissolved substances onto the grains cements them together, and sediment is turned into sedimentary rock. Most sedimentary rocks contain fossils and part or all of many sedimentary rocks are made by organisms. Limestone, for example, is often made from the shells or remains of other hard parts of animals and algae. Plants can partially decompose and be converted into coal (which is a rock). Our civilization depends on crude oil for our principal source of energy. Crude oil is found in sedimentary rocks and is formed through the partial decay of organic matter.

SEDIMENT Sediment is the collective name for loose, solid particles of mineral that originate from: 1. Weathering and erosion of preexisting rocks (detrital sediments). 2. Precipitation from solution, including secretion by organisms in water (chemical sediments). Sediment includes such particles as sand on beaches, mud on a lake bottom, boulders frozen into glaciers, pebbles in streams, and dust particles settling out of the air. An accumulation of clam shells on the sea bottom offshore is sediment, as are coral fragments broken from a reef by large storm waves. These particles usually collect in layers on Earth’s surface. An important part of the definition is that the particles are loose. Sediments are said to be unconsolidated, which means that the grains are separate, or unattached to one another.

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Detrital sediment particles are classified and defined according to the size of individual fragments. Table 14.1 shows the precise definitions of particles by size. Gravel includes all rounded particles coarser than 2 millimeters in diameter, the thickness of a U.S. nickel. (Angular fragments of this size are called rubble.) Pebbles range from 2 to 64 millimeters (about the size of a tennis ball). Cobbles range from 64 to 256 millimeters (about the size of a basketball), and boulders are coarser than 256 millimeters (figure14.1). Sand grains are from 1/16 millimeter (about the thickness of a human hair) to 2 millimeters in diameter. Grains of this size are visible and feel gritty between the fingers. Silt grains are from 1/256 to 1/16 millimeter. They are too small to see without a magnifying device, such as a geologist’s hand lens. Silt does not feel gritty between the fingers, but it does feel gritty between the teeth (geologists often bite sediments to test their grain size). Clay is the finest sediment, at less than 1/256 millimeter, too fine to feel gritty to fingers or teeth. Mud is a term loosely used for a mixture of silt and clay. Note that we have two different uses of the word clay—a clay-sized particle (table 14.1) and a clay mineral. A clay-sized particle can be composed of any mineral at all provided its diameter is less than 1/256 millimeter. A clay mineral, on the other hand, is one of a small group of silicate minerals with a sheet-silicate structure. Clay minerals usually form in the claysize range. Quite often the composition of sediment in the clay-size range turns out to be mostly clay minerals, but this is not always the case. Because of its resistance to chemical weathering, quartz may show up in this fine-size grade. (Most silt is quartz.) Intense mechanical weathering can break down a wide variety of minerals to clay size, and these extremely fine particles may retain their mineral identity for a long time if chemical weathering is slow. The great weight of glaciers is particularly effective at grinding minerals down to the silt- and clay-size range, producing “rock flour,” which gives a milky appearance to glacial meltwater streams (see chapter 19).

TABLE 14.1 Diameter (mm) 256 64 2 1/16 1/256

Sediment Particles and Detrital Sedimentary Rocks

Sediment

Sedimentary Rock

Boulder Cobble Pebble

Breccia (angular particles) or conglomerate (rounded particles) Sandstone Siltstone (mostly silt) Shale or mudstone (mostly clay)

Sand Silt Clay

Gravel

“Mud”

Sandstone and shale are quite common; the others are relatively rare.

FIGURE 14.1 These boulders have been rounded by abrasion as wave action rolled them against one another on this beach. Photo by David McGeary

Weathering, erosion, and transportation are some of the processes that affect the character of sediment. Both mechanically weathered and chemically weathered rock and sediment can be eroded, and weathering continues as erosion takes place. Sand being transported by a river also can be actively weathered, as can mud on a lake bottom. The character of sediment can also be altered by rounding and sorting during transportation, and even after eventual deposition.

Transportation Most sediment is transported some distance by gravity, wind, water, or ice before coming to rest and settling into layers. During transportation, sediment continues to weather and change in character in proportion to the distance the sediment is moved. Rounding is the grinding away of sharp edges and corners of rock fragments during transportation. Rounding occurs in sand and gravel as rivers, glaciers, or waves cause particles to hit and scrape against one another (figure 14.1) or against a rock surface, such as a rocky streambed. Boulders in a stream may show substantial rounding in less than 1 kilometer of travel. Sorting is the process by which sediment grains are selected and separated according to grain size (or grain shape or specific gravity) by the agents of transportation, especially by running water. Because of their high viscosity and manner of flow, glaciers are poor sorting agents. Glaciers deposit all sediment sizes in the same place, so glacial sediment usually consists of a mixture of clay, silt, sand, and gravel. Such glacial sediment is considered poorly sorted. Sediment is considered well-sorted when the grains are nearly all the same size. A river, for example, is a good sorting agent, separating sand from gravel, and silt and clay from sand. Sorting takes place because of the greater weight of larger particles. Boulders weigh more 353

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Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks B Deposition of Sand

weathering and erosion of rock gravel sand silt clay

rapi

C u r r e n t

d flo

gra

w

sand silt clay

moderate flow

t y i c o V e l silt clay

slow flow

clay

vel

sand

A Coarse gravel

silt

clay

C Silt and clay

FIGURE 14.2 Cross-sectional (profile) view of sorting sediment by a river. (A) The coarsest material (gravel) is deposited first in the headwaters of the river where the flow of water is rapid. (B) Deposition of sand occurs as the river loses energy as it flows across a flood plain. (C) Silt and clay are carried and eventually deposited at the mouth of a river when the current velocity slows. Photo A by Diane Carlson; Photo B by Dave McGeary; Photo C by C. W. Montgomery

than pebbles and are more difficult for the river to transport, so a river must flow more rapidly to move boulders than to move pebbles. Similarly, pebbles are harder to move than sand, and sand is harder to move than silt and clay. Figure 14.2 shows the sorting of sediment by a river as it flows out of steep mountains onto a gentle flood plain, where the water loses energy and slows down. As the river loses energy, the heaviest particles of sediment are deposited. The boulders come to rest first (figure 14.2A). As the river continues to slow and becomes less turbulent, cobbles and then pebbles are deposited. Sand comes to rest as the river loses still more energy (figure 14.2B). Finally, the river is carrying only the finest sediment—silt and clay (figure 14.2C). The river has sorted the original sediment mix by grain size.

Deposition When transported material settles or comes to rest, deposition occurs. Sediment is deposited when running water, glacial

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ice, waves, or wind loses energy and can no longer transport its load. Deposition also refers to the accumulation of chemical or organic sediment, such as clam shells on the sea floor or plant material on the floor of a swamp. Such sediments may form as organisms die and their remains accumulate, perhaps with no transportation at all. Deposition of salt crystals can take place as seawater evaporates. A change in the temperature, pressure, or chemistry of a solution may also cause precipitation—hot springs may deposit calcite or silica as the warm water cools. The environment of deposition is determined by the location in which deposition occurs. A few examples of environments of deposition are the deep-sea floor, a desert valley, a river channel, a coral reef, a lake bottom, a beach, and a sand dune. Each environment is marked by characteristic physical, chemical, and biological conditions. You might expect mud on the sea floor to differ from mud on a lake bottom. Sand on a beach may differ from sand in a river channel. Some differences are due to varying sediment sources and transporting

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agents, but most are the result of conditions in the environments of deposition themselves. One of the most important jobs of geologists studying sedimentary rocks is to try to determine the ancient environment of deposition of the sediment in which the rock formed. Factors that can help in determining this are a detailed knowledge of modern environments, the vertical sequence of rock layers in the field, the fossils and sedimentary structures found within the rock, the mineral composition of the rock, and the size, shape, and surface texture of the individual sediment grains. Later in this chapter, we give a few examples of interpreting environments of deposition.

Preservation Not all sediments are preserved as sedimentary layers. Gravel in a river may be deposited when a river is low but then may be eroded and transported by the next flood on the river. Many sediments on land, particularly those well above sea level, are easily eroded and carried away, so they are not commonly preserved. Sediments on the sea floor are easier to preserve. In general, continental and marine sediments are most likely to be preserved if they are deposited in a subsiding (sinking) basin and if they are covered or buried by later sediments.

Lithification Lithification is the general term for the processes that convert loose sediment into sedimentary rock. Most sedimentary rocks are lithified by a combination of compaction, which packs loose sediment grains tightly together, and cementation, in which the precipitation of cement around sediment grains binds them into a firm, coherent rock. Crystallization of minerals from solution, without passing through the loose-sediment stage, is another way that rocks may be lithified. Some layers of sediment persist for tens of millions of years without becoming fully lithified. Usually, layers of partially lithified sediment have been buried deep enough to become compacted, but have not experienced the conditions required for cementation.

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As sediment grains settle slowly in a quiet environment such as a lake bottom, they form an arrangement with a great deal of open space between the grains (figure 14.3A). The open spaces between grains are called pores, and in a quiet environment, a deposit of sand may have 40% to 50% of its volume as open pore space. (If the grains were traveling rapidly and impacting one another just before deposition, the percentage of pore space will be less.) As more and more sediment grains are deposited on top of the original grains, the increasing weight of this overburden packs the original grains together, reducing the amount of pore space. This shift to a tighter packing, with a resulting decrease in pore space, is called compaction (figure 14.3B). As pore space decreases, some of the interstitial water that usually fills sediment pores is driven out of the sediment. As underground water moves through the remaining pore space, solid material called cement can precipitate in the pore space and bind the loose sediment grains together to form a solid rock. The cement attaches very tightly to the grains, holding them in a rigid framework. As cement partially or completely fills the pores, the total amount of pore space is further reduced (figure 14.3C), and the loose sand forms a hard, coherent sandstone by cementation. Sedimentary rock cement is often composed of the mineral calcite or of other carbonate minerals. Dissolved calcium and bicarbonate ions are common in surface and underground waters. If the chemical conditions are right, these ions may recombine to form solid calcite, as shown in the following reaction. Ca⫹⫹ ⫹ 2HCO3⫺ → dissolved ions

CaCO3

H2O

CO2

calcite

Silica is another common cement. Iron oxides and clay minerals can also act as cement but are less common than calcite and silica. The dissolved ions that precipitate as cement originate from the chemical weathering of minerals such as feldspar and calcite. This weathering may occur within the sediments being

Overburden Feldspar Cement

Quartz Pore space

A After deposition

B Compaction

C Cementation

FIGURE 14.3 Lithification of sand grains to become sandstone. (A) Loose sand grains are deposited with open pore space between the grains. (B) The weight of overburden compacts the sand into a tighter arrangement, reducing pore space. (C) Precipitation of cement in the pores by ground water binds the sand into the rock sandstone, which has a clastic texture.

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FIGURE 14.4 Crystalline dolostone as seen through a polarizing microscope. Note the interlocking crystals of dolomite mineral that grew as they precipitated during recrystallization. Such crystalline sedimentary textures have no cement or pore spaces. Photo by Bret Bennington

cemented, or at a very distant site, with the ions being transported tens or even hundreds of kilometers by water before precipitating as solid cement. A sedimentary rock that consists of sediment grains bound by cement into a rigid framework is said to have a clastic texture. Usually such a rock still has some pore space because cement rarely fills the pores completely (figure 14.3C). Some sedimentary rocks form by crystallization, the development and growth of crystals by precipitation from solution at or near Earth’s surface (the term is also used for igneous rocks that crystallize as magma cools). These rocks have a crystalline texture, an arrangement of interlocking crystals that develops as crystals grow and interfere with each other. Crystalline rocks lack cement. They are held together by the interlocking of crystals. Such rocks have minimal pore space because the crystals typically grow until they fill all available space. Some sedimentary rocks with a crystalline texture are the result of recrystallization, the growth of new crystals that form from and then destroy the original clastic grains of a rock that has been buried (figure 14.4).

TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Sedimentary rocks are formed from (1) eroded mineral grains, (2) minerals precipitated from low-temperature solution, or (3) consolidation of the organic remains of plants. These different types of sedimentary rocks are called, respectively, detrital, chemical, and organic rocks. Most sedimentary rocks are detrital sedimentary rocks, formed from cemented sediment grains that are fragments of preexisting rocks. The rock fragments can be either identifiable pieces of rock, such as pebbles of granite or shale, or individual mineral grains, such as sand-sized quartz and feldspar crystals

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loosened from rocks by weathering and erosion. Clay minerals formed by chemical weathering are also considered fragments of preexisting rocks. During transportation the grains may have been rounded and sorted. Table 14.1 shows the detrital rocks, such as conglomerate, sandstone, and shale, and how these rocks vary in grain size. Chemical sedimentary rocks are deposited by precipitation of minerals from solution. An example of inorganic precipitation is the formation of rock salt as seawater evaporates. Chemical precipitation can also be caused by organisms. The sedimentary rock limestone is often formed from the cementation of broken pieces of seashell and fragments of calcite mineral produced by corals and algae. Such a rock is called a bioclastic limestone. Not all chemical sedimentary rocks accumulate as sediment. Some limestones are crystallized as solid rock by corals and coralline algae in reefs. Chert crystallizes in solid masses within some layers of limestone. Rock salt may crystallize directly as a solid mass or it may form from the crystallization of individual salt crystals that behave as sedimentary particles until they grow large enough to interlock into solid rock. Organic sedimentary rocks are rocks that are composed of organic carbon compounds. Coal is an organic rock that forms from the compression of plant remains, such as moss, leaves, twigs, roots, and tree trunks. Appendix B describes and helps you identify the common sedimentary rocks. The standard geologic symbols for these rocks (such as dots for sandstone, and a “brick-wall” symbol for limestone) are shown in appendix F and will be used in the remainder of the book.

DETRITAL ROCKS Detrital sedimentary rocks are formed from the weathered and eroded remains (detritus) of bedrock. Detrital rocks are also often referred to as terrigenous clastic rocks because they are composed of clasts (broken pieces) of mineral derived from the erosion of the land.

Breccia and Conglomerate Sedimentary breccia is a coarse-grained sedimentary rock formed by the cementation of coarse, angular fragments of rubble (figure 14.5). Because grains are rounded so rapidly during transport, it is unlikely that the angular fragments within breccia have moved very far from their source. Sedimentary breccia might form from fragments that have accumulated at the base of a steep slope of rock that is being mechanically weathered. Landslide deposits also might lithify into sedimentary breccia. This type of rock is not particularly common. Conglomerate is a coarse-grained sedimentary rock formed by the cementation of rounded gravel. It can be distinguished from breccia by the definite roundness of its particles (figure 14.6). Because conglomerates are coarse-grained, the

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FIGURE 14.5 Breccia is characterized by coarse, angular fragments. The cement in this rock is colored by hematite. The wide black and white bars on the scale are 1 centimeter long, the small divisions are 1 millimeter. Note that most grains exceed 2 millimeters (table 14.1). Photo by David McGeary

FIGURE 14.6 An outcrop of a poorly sorted conglomerate. Note the rounding of cobbles, which vary in composition and size. The cement in this rock is also colored by hematite. Long scale bar is 10 centimeters; short bars are 1 centimeter. Photo by David McGeary

particles may not have traveled far; but some transport was necessary to round the particles. Angular fragments that fall from a cliff and then are carried a few kilometers by a river or pounded by waves crashing in the surf along a beach are quickly rounded. Gravel that is transported down steep submarine canyons or carried by glacial ice, however, can be transported tens or even hundreds of kilometers before deposition.

Sandstone Sandstone is formed by the cementation of sand grains (figure 14.7). Any deposit of sand can lithify to sandstone. Rivers deposit sand in their channels, and wind piles up sand into

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dunes. Waves deposit sand on beaches and in shallow water. Deep-sea currents spread sand over the sea floor. As you might imagine, sandstones show a great deal of variation in mineral composition, degree of sorting, and degree of rounding. Quartz sandstone is a sandstone in which more than 90% of the grains are quartz (figure 14.7A). Because quartz is resistant to chemical weathering, it tends to concentrate in sand deposits as the less-resistant minerals such as feldspar are weathered away. The quartz grains in a quartz sandstone are usually well-sorted and well-rounded because they have been transported for great distances (figure 14.8A). Most quartz sandstone was deposited as beach sand or dune sand. A sandstone with more than 25% of the grains consisting of feldspar is called arkose (figure 14.7B). Because feldspar grains are preserved in the rock, the original sediment obviously did not undergo severe chemical weathering, or the feldspar would have been destroyed. Mountains of granite in a desert could be a source for such a sediment, for the rapid erosion associated with rugged terrain would allow feldspar to be mechanically weathered and eroded before it is chemically weathered (a dry climate slows chemical weathering). Most arkoses contain coarse, angular grains (figure 14.8B), so transportation distances were probably short. An arkose may have been deposited within an alluvial fan, a large, fan-shaped pile of sediment that usually forms where a stream emerges from a narrow canyon onto a flat plain at the foot of a mountain range (figure 14.9). Sandstones may contain a substantial amount of matrix in the form of fine-grained silt and clay in the space between larger sand grains (figure 14.10). A matrix-rich sandstone is poorly sorted and often dark in color. It is sometimes called a “dirty sandstone.” Graywacke (pronounced “gray-wacky”) is a type of sandstone in which more than 15% of the rock’s volume consists of fine-grained matrix (figures 14.7C and 14.8C). Graywackes are often tough and dense, and are generally dark gray or green. The sand grains may be so coated with matrix that they are difficult to see, but they typically consist of quartz, feldspar, and sand-sized fragments of other fine-grained sedimentary, volcanic, and metamorphic rocks. Most graywackes probably formed from sediment-laden currents that are deposited in deep water (see figure 14.28).

The Fine-Grained Rocks Rocks consisting of fine-grained silt and clay are called shale, siltstone, claystone, and mudstone. Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock notable for its ability to split into layers (called fissility). Splitting takes place along the surfaces of very thin layers (called laminations) within the shale (figure 14.11). Most shales contain both silt and clay (averaging about two-thirds clay-sized clay minerals and one-third silt-sized quartz) and are so fine-grained that the surface of the rock feels very smooth. The silt and clay deposits that lithify as shale accumulate on lake bottoms, at the ends of

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A

B

C

FIGURE 14.7 Types of sandstone. (A) Quartz sandstone; more than 90% of the grains are quartz. (B) Arkose; the grains are mostly feldspar and quartz. (C) Graywacke; the grains are surrounded by dark, fine-grained matrix. (Small scale divisions are 1 millimeter; most of the sand grains are about 1 millimeter in diameter.) Photos by David McGeary

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Mountains of feldspar-rich rock such as granite Layers of coarse, angular, feldspar-rich sand

A

FIGURE 14.9 Feldspar-rich sand (arkose) may accumulate from the rapid erosion of feldsparcontaining rock such as granite. Steep terrain accelerates erosion rates so that feldspar may be eroded before it is completely chemically weathered into clay minerals.

Sand

Silt

Clay

B

FIGURE 14.10 A poorly sorted sediment of sand grains surrounded by a matrix of silt and clay grains. Lithification of such a sediment would produce a “dirty sandstone.”

C

FIGURE 14.8 Detrital sedimentary rocks viewed through a polarizing microscope. (A) Quartz sandstone; note the well-rounded and well-sorted grains. (B) Arkose; large feldspar grain in center surrounded by angular quartz grains. (C) Graywacke; quartz grains surrounded by brownish matrix of mud. Photos by Bret Bennington

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rivers in deltas, on river flood plains, and on quiet parts of the deep-ocean floor. Fine-grained rocks such as shale typically undergo pronounced compaction as they lithify. Figure 14.12 shows the role of compaction in the lithification of shale from wet mud. Before compaction, as much as 80% of the volume of the wet mud may have been pore space filled with water. The flakelike clay minerals were randomly arranged within the mud. Pressure from overlying material packs the sediment grains together and reduces the overall volume by squeezing water out of the pores. The clay minerals are reoriented perpendicular to the pressure, becoming parallel to one another like a deck of cards. The fissility of shale is due to weaknesses between these parallel clay flakes.

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Compaction by itself does not generally lithify sediment into sedimentary rock. It does help consolidate clayey sediments by pressing the microscopic clay minerals so closely together that attractional forces at the atomic level tend to bind them together. Even in shale, however, the primary method of lithification is cementation. A rock consisting mostly of silt grains is called siltstone. Somewhat coarser-grained than most shales, siltstones lack the fissility and laminations of shale. Claystone is a rock composed predominately of clay-sized particles but lacking the fissility of shale. Mudstone contains both silt and clay, having the same grain size and smooth feel of shale but lacking shale’s laminations and fissility. Mudstone is massive and blocky, while shale is visibly layered and fissile.

CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

A

Chemical sedimentary rocks are precipitated from a lowtemperature aqueous environment. Chemical sedimentary rocks are precipitated either directly by inorganic processes or by the actions of organisms. Chemical rocks include carbonates, chert, and evaporites.

Carbonate Rocks Carbonate rocks contain the CO32⫺ ion as part of their chemical composition. The two main types of carbonates are limestone and dolomite.

Limestone B

FIGURE 14.11 (A) An outcrop of shale from Hudson Valley in New York. Note how this fine-grained rock tends to split into very thin layers. (B) Shale pieces; note the very fine grain (scale in centimeters), very thin layers (laminations) on the edge of the large piece, and tendency to break into small, flat pieces (fissility). Photo A © John Buitenkant/Photo Researchers Inc.; Photo B by David McGeary

A Wet mud

Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed mostly of calcite (CaCO3). Limestones are precipitated either by the actions of organisms or directly as the result of inorganic processes. Thus, the two major types of limestone can be classified as either biochemical or inorganic limestone. Biochemical limestones are precipitated through the actions of organisms. Most biochemical limestones are formed on continental shelves in warm, shallow water. Biochemical limestone

B Weight of new sediment C Splitting surfaces (fissility)

Sediment

Water loss

Compacted sediment

Water loss

Shale (after cementation)

FIGURE 14.12 Lithification of shale from the compaction and cementation of wet mud. (A) Randomly oriented silt and clay particles in wet mud. (B) Particles reorient, water is lost, and pore space decreases during compaction caused by the weight of new sediment deposited on top of the wet mud. (C) Splitting surfaces in cemented shale form parallel to the oriented mineral grains.

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FIGURE 14.13 Corals precipitate calcium carbonate to form limestone in a reef. Water depth about 8 meters (25 feet), San Salvador Island, Bahamas. Photo by David McGeary

may be precipitated directly in the core of a reef by corals, encrusting algae, or other shell-forming organisms (figure 14.13). Such a rock would contain the fossil remains of organisms preserved in growth position. The great majority of limestones are biochemical limestones formed of wave-broken fragments of algae, corals, and shells. The fragments may be of any size (gravel, sand, silt, and clay) and are often sorted and rounded as they are transported by waves and currents across the sea floor (figure 14.14). The

action of these waves and currents and subsequent cementation of these fragments into rock give these limestones a clastic texture. These bioclastic (or skeletal) limestones take a great variety of appearances. They may be relatively coarse-grained with recognizable fossils (figure 14.15) or uniformly fine-grained and dense from the accumulation of microscopic fragments of calcareous algae (figures 14.15 and 14.16). A variety of limestone called coquina forms from the cementation of shells and shell fragments that accumulated on the shallow sea floor near shore (figure 14.17). It has a clastic texture and is usually coarsegrained, with easily recognizable shells and shell fragments in it. Chalk is a light-colored, porous, very fine-grained variety of bioclastic limestone that forms from the seafloor accumulation of microscopic marine organisms that drift near the sea surface (figure 14.18). Inorganic limestones are precipitated directly as the result of inorganic processes. Oolitic limestone is a distinctive variety of inorganic limestone formed by the cementation of sand-sized oöids, small spheres of calcite inorganically precipitated in warm, shallow seawater (figure 14.19). Strong tidal currents roll the oolites back and forth, allowing them to maintain a nearly spherical shape as they grow. Wave action may also contribute to their shape. Oolitic limestone has a clastic texture. Tufa and travertine are inorganic limestones that form from fresh water. Tufa is precipitated from solution in the water of a continental spring or lake, or from percolating ground water. Travertine may form in caves when carbonate-rich water loses CO2 to the cave atmosphere. Tufa and travertine both have a crystalline texture; however, tufa is generally more porous, cellular, or open than travertine, which tends to be more dense. Limestones are particularly susceptible to recrystallization, the process by which new crystals, often of the same mineral composition as the original grains, develop in a rock. Calcite grains recrystallize easily, particularly in the presence of water

Back reef

Dune Beach

Carb ona (bioc te sand lastic )

Carb ona (bioc te mud lastic )

Reef

Fore reef

Lagoon

Carb ona (bioc te sand lastic )

FIGURE 14.14 A living coral-algal reef sheds bioclastic sediment into the fore-reef and back-reef environments. The fore reef consists of coarse, angular fragments of reef. Algae are the major contributors of carbonate sand and mud in the back reef. Beaches and dunes are often bioclastic sand. The sediments in each environment can lithify to form highly varied limestones.

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Reef Coa core rse (biochemical) of wave fragme nts -b (bioc roken re ef lasti c)

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FIGURE 14.15 Bioclastic limestones. The two on the left are coarse-grained and contain visible fossils of corals and shells. The limestone on the right consists of fine-grained carbonate mud formed by calcareous algae. Photo by David McGeary

FIGURE 14.17 FIGURE 14.16

Coquina, a variety of bioclastic limestone, is formed by the cementation of coarse shells. Photo by David McGeary

Green algae on the sea floor in 3 meters of water on the Bahama Banks. The “shaving brush” alga is Penicillus, which produces great quantities of fine-grained carbonate mud. Photo by David McGeary

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A

FIGURE 14.18 Chalk is a fine-grained variety of bioclastic limestone formed of the remains of microscopic marine organisms that live near the sea surface. Photo by David McGeary

and under the weight of overlying sediment. The new crystals that form are often large and can be easily seen in a rock as slight reflections off their broad, flat cleavage faces. Recrystallization often destroys the original clastic texture and fossils of a rock, replacing them with a new crystalline texture. Therefore, geologic history of such a rock can be very difficult to determine. B

Dolomite The term dolomite (table 14.2) is used to refer to both a sedimentary rock and the mineral that composes it, CaMg(CO3)2. (Some geologists use dolostone for the rock.) Dolomite often forms from limestone as the calcium in calcite is partially

TABLE 14.2

FIGURE 14.19 (A) Aerial photo of underwater dunes of oöids chemically precipitated from seawater on the shallow Bahama Banks, south of Bimini. Tidal currents move the dunes. (B) An oölitic limestone formed by the cementation of oöids (small spheres). Small divisions on scale are 1 millimeter wide. Photos by David McGeary

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks Inorganic Sedimentary Rocks

Rock

Composition

Texture

Origin

Limestone

CaCO3

Crystalline Oolitic

Dolomite Evaporites Rock salt Rock gypsum

CaMg(CO3)2

Crystalline

May be precipitated directly from seawater. Cementation of oolites (ooids) precipitated chemically from warm shallow seawater (oolitic limestone). Also forms in caves as travertine and in springs, lakes, or percolating ground water as tufa Alteration of limestone by Mg-rich solutions (usually) Evaporation of seawater or a saline lake

NaCl CaSO4⋅2H2O

Crystalline Crystalline Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks

Rock

Composition

Texture

Origin

Limestone

CaCO3 (calcite)

Clastic or crystalline

Chert

SiO2 (silica)

Crystalline (usually)

Cementation of fragments of shells, corals, and coralline algae (bioclastic limestone such as coquina and chalk). Also precipitated directly by organisms in reefs. Cementation of microscopic marine organisms; rock usually recrystallized

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replaced by magnesium, usually as water solutions move through the limestone. ⫹ 2CaCO3 → CaMg(CO3)2 ⫹ Ca⫹⫹ Mg⫹⫹ magnesium calcite dolomite calcium in solution in solution Regionally extensive layers of dolomite are thought to form in one of two ways: 1. As magnesium-rich brines created by solar evaporation of seawater trickle through existing layers of limestone. 2. As chemical reactions take place at the boundary between fresh underground water and seawater; the Mg ions could migrate through layers of limestone as sea level rises or falls. The dolomitization process causes recrystallization of the preexisting limestone, resulting in dolomite rock that is hard and very finely crystalline. Original features such as grain size,

fossils, and sedimentary structures are often destroyed during recrystallization, making it difficult to interpret the environment of deposition of the original limestone.

Chert A hard, compact, fine-grained sedimentary rock formed almost entirely of silica, chert occurs in two principal forms—as irregular, lumpy nodules within other rocks and as layered deposits like other sedimentary rocks (figure 14.20). The nodules, often found in limestone, probably formed from inorganic precipitation as underground water replaced part of the original rock with silica. The layered deposits typically form from the accumulation of delicate, glass-like shells of microscopic marine organisms on the sea floor. Microscopic fossils composed of silica are abundant in some cherts. But because chert is susceptible to recrystallization, the original fossils are easily destroyed, and the origin of many cherts remains unknown.

Evaporites Rocks formed from crystals that precipitate during evaporation of water are called evaporites. They form from the evaporation of seawater or a saline lake (figure 14.21), such as Great Salt Lake in Utah. Rock gypsum, formed from the mineral gypsum (CaSO4 ⋅ 2H2O), is a common evaporite. Rock salt, composed of the mineral halite (NaCl), may also form if evaporation continues. Other less common evaporites include the borates, potassium salts, and magnesium salts. All evaporites have a crystalline texture. Extensive deposits of rock salt and rock gypsum have formed in the past where shallow, continental seas existed in hot, arid climates. Similarly, modern evaporite deposits are forming in the Persian Gulf and in the Red Sea. A

B

FIGURE 14.20 (A) Chert nodules in limestone near Bluefield, West Virginia. (B) Bedded chert from the coast ranges, California. Camera lens cap (5.5 centimeters) for scale. Photo A © Parvinder Sethi; Photo B by David McGeary

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FIGURE 14.21 Salt deposited on the floor of a dried-up desert lake, Death Valley, California. Photo © Michael Collier

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Valuable Sedimentary Rocks

M

any sedimentary rocks have uses that make them valuable. Limestone is widely used as building stone and is also the main rock type quarried for crushed rock for road construction. Pulverized limestone is the main ingredient of cement for mortar and concrete and is also used to neutralize acid soils in the humid regions of the United States. Coal is a major fuel, used widely for generating electrical power and for heating. Plaster and plasterboard for home construction are manufactured from gypsum, which is also used to stabilize the shrink-swell characteristics of clay-rich soils in some areas. Huge quantities of rock salt are consumed by industry, primarily for the manufacture of hydrochloric acid. More familiar uses of rock salt are for table salt and melting ice on roads. Some chalk is used in the manufacture of blackboard chalk, although most classroom chalk is now made from pulverized limestone. The filtering agent for beer brewing and for swimming pools is likely to be made of diatomite, an accumulation of the siliceous remains of microscope diatoms.

Stucco exterior (limestone, sandstone, sand)

Masonry fireplace limestone, sandstone, sand) Tile roof (shale)

Clay from shale and other deposits supplies the basic material for ceramics of all sorts, from hand-thrown pottery and fine porcelain to sewer pipe. Sulfur is used for matches, fungicides, and sulfuric acid; and phosphates and nitrates for fertilizers are extracted from natural occurrences of special sedimentary rocks (although other sources also are used). Potassium for soap manufacture comes largely from evaporites, as does boron for heat-resistant cookware and fiberglass, and sodium for baking soda, washing soda, and soap. Quartz sandstone is used in glass manufacturing and for building stone. Many metallic ores, such as the most common iron ores, have a sedimentary origin. The pore space of sedimentary rocks acts as a reservoir for ground water (chapter 17), crude oil, and natural gas. In chapter 21, we take a closer look at these resources and other useful Earth materials.

Glass windows (quartz sandstone)

Vinyl upholstery (oil) Car (iron ore, oil, gas)

Clay pot (shale)

Plasterboard or sheetrock (gypsum)

Concrete pool (limestone, sandstone, sand)

Asphalt (oil)

PVC pipes (oil)

Pool filter (diatomite or sand)

Heat and electricity (natural gas, coal)

Flooring (natural stone, vinyl) Concrete foundation (limestone, sandstone, sand)

Clay sewer pipes (shale)

BOX 14.1 ■ FIGURE 1 Common uses of materials that are sedimentary in origin.

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tree stump

FIGURE 14.22 Coal bed in the Black Warrior Coal Basin, Alabama. Note the fossil tree stump preserved in place at the top of the coal. Photo by Bret Bennington

ORGANIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Coal Coal is a sedimentary rock that forms from the compaction of plant material that has not completely decayed (figure 14.22). Rapid plant growth and deposition in water with a low oxygen content are needed, so shallow swamps or bogs in a temperate or tropical climate are likely environments of deposition. The plant fossils in coal beds include leaves, stems, tree trunks, and stumps with roots often extending into the underlying shales, so apparently most coal formed right at the place where the plants grew. Coal usually develops from peat, a brown, lightweight, unconsolidated or semiconsolidated deposit of plant remains that accumulate in wet bogs. Peat is transformed into coal largely by compaction after it has been buried by sediments. Partial decay of the abundant plant material uses up any oxygen in the swamp water, so the decay stops and the remaining organic matter is preserved. Burial by sediment compresses the plant material, gradually driving out any water or other volatile compounds. The coal changes from brown to black as the amount of carbon in it increases. Several varieties of coal are recognized on the basis of the type of original plant material and the degree of compaction (see chapter 21).

THE ORIGIN OF OIL AND GAS Oil and natural gas seem to originate from organic matter in marine sediment. Microscopic organisms, such as diatoms and other single-celled algae, settle to the sea floor and accumulate in marine mud. The most likely environments for this are

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restricted basins with poor water circulation, particularly on continental shelves. The organic matter may partially decompose, using up the dissolved oxygen in the sediment. As soon as the oxygen is gone, decay stops and the remaining organic matter is preserved. Continued sedimentation buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas. As muddy sediments compact, the gas and small droplets of oil may be squeezed out of the mud and may move into more porous and permeable sandy layers nearby. Over long periods of time, large accumulations of gas and oil can collect in the sandy layers. Both oil and gas are less dense than water, so they generally tend to rise upward through water-saturated rock and sediment. Natural gas represents the end point in petroleum maturation. Details of the origin of coal, oil, and gas are discussed in chapter 21.

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES Sedimentary structures are features found within sedimentary rock. They usually form during or shortly after deposition of the sediment but before lithification. Structures found in sedimentary rocks are important because they provide clues that help geologists determine the means by which sediment was transported and also its eventual resting place, or environment of deposition. Sedimentary structures may also reveal the orientation, or upward direction, of the deposit, which helps geologists unravel the geometry of rocks that have been folded and faulted in tectonically active regions. One of the most prominent structures, seen in most large bodies of sedimentary rock, is bedding, a series of visible layers within rock (figure 14.23). Most bedding is horizontal because the sediments from which the sedimentary rocks formed were originally deposited as horizontal layers. The principle of original horizontality states that most water-laid sediment is deposited in horizontal or near-horizontal layers that are essentially parallel to Earth’s surface. In many cases, this is also true for sediments deposited by ice or wind. If each new layer of sediment buries previous layers, a stack of horizontal layers will develop with the oldest layer on the bottom and the layers becoming younger upward. This is the principle of superposition. Sedimentary rocks formed from such sediments preserve the horizontal layering in the form of beds (figure 14.23). A bedding plane is a nearly flat surface of deposition separating two layers of rock. A change in the grain size or composition of the particles being deposited, or a pause during deposition, can create bedding planes. In sandstone, a thicker bed of rock will often consist of a series of thinner, inclined beds called cross-beds (figure 14.24). Cross-beds form because in flowing air and water, sand grains move as migrating ripples and dunes. Sand is pushed up the shallow side of the ripple to the crest, where it then avalanches down the steep side, forming a cross-bed. Cross-beds form one

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FIGURE 14.23 Bedding in sandstone and shale, Utah. The horizontal layers formed as one type of sediment buried another in the geologic past. The layers get younger upwards. Photo by David McGeary

FIGURE 14.24 Cross-bedded sandstone in Zion National Park, Utah. Note how the thin layers have formed at an angle to the more extensive bedding planes (also tilted) in the rock. This cross-bedding was formed in sand dunes deposited by the wind. Photo by David McGeary

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P L A N E TA R Y G E O L O G Y 1 4 . 2

Sedimentary Rocks: The Key To Mars’ Past

S

edimentary rocks on Mars will one day allow planetary geologists to decipher its early history and determine if Mars was once a warmer, wetter planet. Currently, the atmosphere on Mars is too thin and its surface too cold to allow liquid water to exist (see chapter 22). But was Mars wet enough to host lakes and seas long ago? New observations from robotic spacecraft exploring Mars show evidence for extensive deposits of water-lain sedimentary rock. In orbit around Mars, the Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Express, and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter spacecraft have taken thousands of high-resolution photographs, many of which reveal widespread, laterally continuous layers that appear to be sedimentary rock. For example, hundreds of layers of rock are exposed in parts of the walls of the Valles Marineris, a large chasm on Mars that resembles the Grand Canyon but is almost 4,000 kilometers (2,700 miles) long! In the Mawrth Vallis, the rock layers have been identified as thick beds of clay. Because clay minerals can form only in the presence of liquid water and because the clay beds are thick and cover such a wide geographic area, one interpretation is that large bodies of standing water may have existed on Mars. These extensive lakes would have formed very early in the planet’s history and probably lasted for millions of years. While the Mars Orbiters search from the sky, Mars Landers have been exploring the surface of the planet. The Mars Exploration Rover named Opportunity landed inside a small crater with exposures of layered rock and later traversed the Martian surface to enter a larger crater with more layered rock (box figure 1). Detailed photographic and spectrographic analyses of these layered rocks have revealed sedimentary features such as cross-beds, hematite mineral concretions, and the presence of minerals such as jarosite that typically form in water. More recently, the Phoenix Mars Lander set down near the polar region and found frozen water in the soil under the landing site. During the Phoenix mission, the first wet chemical analyses done on any planet other than Earth found more evidence for the possible past occurrence of water on Mars in the

form of magnesium, sodium, potassium, and chloride salts (evaporites). Subsequent analyses indicate the presence of calcium carbonate (limestone), an important discovery because carbon-containing compounds are necessary for life as we know it on Earth. Data from all the Mars Orbiters and Landers are being collected to determine the landing site of the Mars Science Laboratory, the most sophisticated Mars Lander to date, which is scheduled to arrive on Mars in the fall of 2010. Mars’ sedimentary rocks have demonstrated that the elements and conditions necessary for life as we know it were quite likely present in the planet’s past, and may exist there today. The Mars Science Laboratory will continue the search for life by looking for organic compounds such as proteins and amino acids, and by looking for atmospheric gases that are associated with biological activity. More exciting discoveries are anticipated as Mars continues to be the most promising place to look for evidence of extraterrestrial life in our solar system.

Additional Resources Information about the Mars exploration program at NASA, including images and updates from ongoing missions, such as the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and the Phoenix Mars Lander, is available from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/NASA Mars Program website. http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/

Spectacular images from the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) aboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter can be found at the CRISM website. http://crism.jhuapl.edu/

Visit the European Space Agency’s Mars Express website for information about this ongoing mission. http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Mars_Express/

Visit the Malin Space Science Systems website for an extensive collection of archived images from recent Mars missions. http://www.msss.com/

BOX 14.2 ■ FIGURE 1 Layers of sedimentary rock exposed inside the rim of Endurance Crater photographed by the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity. Photo by NASA/JPL/Cornell

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Crest

Wind

Sand dune

A

B

Water current (river or sea) Water current (river or sea)

C

D

FIGURE 14.25 The development of cross-beds in wind-blown sand (A and B) and water-deposited sand (C and D). (A) Sand grains migrate up the shallow side of the dune and avalanche down the steep side, forming cross-beds. (B) Second layer of cross-beds forms as wind shifts and a dune migrates from the opposite direction. (C) Underwater current deposits cross-beds as ripple migrates downstream. (D) Continued deposition and migration of ripples produces multiple layers of cross-beds.

after the other as the ripple migrates downstream (figure 14.25). Ripples can also be preserved on the surface of a bed of sandstone, forming ripple marks, if they are buried by another layer of sediment (figure 14.26). Ripple marks produced by currents flowing in a single direction are asymmetrical (as discussed previously and in figures 14.26B and D). In waves, water moves back and forth, producing symmetrical wave ripples (figures 14.26A and C). Ripple marks and cross-beds can form in conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones, and limestones, and in environments such as deserts, river channels, river deltas, and shorelines. A graded bed is a layer with a vertical change in particle size, usually from coarse grains at the bottom of the bed to progressively finer grains toward the top (figure 14.27). A single bed may have gravel at its base and grade upward through sand and silt to fine clay at the top. A graded bed may be deposited by a turbidity current. A turbidity current is a turbulently flowing mass of sediment-laden water that is heavier than clear water and therefore flows downslope along the bottom of the sea or a lake. Turbidity currents are underwater avalanches and are typically triggered by earthquakes or submarine landslides. Figure 14.28 shows the development of a graded bed by turbiditycurrent deposition. Mud cracks are a polygonal pattern of cracks formed in very fine-grained sediment as it dries (figure 14.29). Because drying requires air, mud cracks form only in sediment exposed above water. Mud cracks may form in lake-bottom sediment as the lake dries up; in flood-deposited sediment as a river level drops; or in marine sediment exposed to the air, perhaps

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temporarily by a falling tide. Cracked mud can lithify to form shale, preserving the cracks. The filling of mud cracks by sand can form casts of the cracks in an overlying sandstone.

FOSSILS Fossils are the remains of organisms preserved in sedimentary rock. Most sedimentary layers contain some type of fossil and some limestones are composed entirely of fossils. Most fossils are preserved by the rapid burial in sediment of bones, shells, or teeth, which are the mineralized hard parts of animals most resistant to decay (figure 14.30). The original bone or shell is rarely preserved unaltered; the original mineral is often recrystallized or replaced by a different mineral such as pyrite or silica. Bone and wood may be petrified as organic material is replaced and pore spaces filled with mineral. Shells entombed within rock are commonly dissolved away by pore waters, leaving only impressions or molds of the original fossil. Leaves and undecayed organic tissue can also be preserved as thin films of carbon (figure 14.31A). Trace fossils are a type of sedimentary structure produced by the impact of an organisms’s activities on the sediment. Footprints, trackways, and burrows are the most common trace fossils (figure 14.31B). Many paleontologists study fossils to learn about the evolution of life on Earth, but fossils are also very useful for interpreting depositional environments and for reconstructing the climates of the past. Fossils can be used to distinguish fresh

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A Wave motion near shore

Water

Sediment

C

Current (water or wind)

D Sediment B

FIGURE 14.26 Development of ripple marks in loose sediment. (A) Symmetric ripple marks form beneath waves. (B) Asymmetric ripple marks, forming beneath a current, are steeper on their down-current sides. (C) Ripple marks on a bedding plane in sandstone, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah. Scale in centimeters. (D) Current ripples in wet sediment of a tidal flat, Baja California. Photo C by David McGeary; Photo D by Frank M. Hanna

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FIGURE 14.27 A graded bed has coarse grains at the bottom of the bed and progressively finer grains toward the top. Coin for scale. Photo by David McGeary

Turbidity current (sediment-water suspension)

A

A

Layers of sediment from previous turbidity currents

Sediment-laden turbidity current flows beneath clear water

Current slows down; coarse, heavy particles settle first

Fine-grained “tail” of turbidity current continues to flow, adding fine-grained sediment to top of deposit

Main body of current comes to rest

Progressively finer sediments settle on top of coarse particles

A graded bed B

FIGURE 14.28 Formation of a graded bed by deposition from a turbidity current. (A) Slurry of sediment and water moves downslope along the sea floor. (B) As the turbidity flow slows down, larger grains are deposited first, followed by progressively finer grains, to produce a graded bed.

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B

FIGURE 14.29 (A) Mud cracks in recently dried mud. (B) Mud cracks preserved in shale; they have been partially filled with sediment. Photos by David McGeary

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A

FIGURE 14.30 Fossil clams, brachiopods, and trilobites in the Hamilton Shale of New York. Some of the fossils have their original shell material, other fossils are preserved as impressions. Photo by Bret Bennington

water from marine environments and to infer the water depth at which a particular sedimentary layer was deposited. Tropical, temperate, and arid climates can be associated with distinctive types of fossil plants. Marine microfossils, the tiny shells produced by ocean-dwelling plankton, can be analyzed to determine the water temperature that surrounded the shell when it formed. Much of our detailed knowledge of Earth’s climate changes over the last 150 million years has come from the study of microfossils extracted from layers of mud deposited on the deep-ocean floor.

FORMATIONS A formation is a body of rock of considerable thickness that is large enough to be mappable, and with characteristics that distinguish it from adjacent rock units. Although a formation is usually composed of one or more beds of sedimentary rock, units of metamorphic and igneous rock are also called formations. It is a convenient unit for mapping, describing, or interpreting the geology of a region. Formations are often based on rock type. A formation may be a single thick bed of rock such as sandstone. A sequence of several thin sandstone beds could also be called a formation, as could a sequence of alternating limestone and shale beds. The main criterion for distinguishing and naming a formation is some visible characteristic that makes it a recognizable unit. This characteristic may be rock type or sedimentary structures or both. For example, a thick sequence of shale may be overlain by basalt flows and underlain by sandstone. The shale,

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B

FIGURE 14.31 (A) Fossil fish in a rock from western Wyoming. (B) Dinosaur footprint in shale, Tuba City, Arizona. Scale in centimeters. Photo A by U.S. Geological Survey; Photo B by David McGeary

the basalt, and the sandstone are each a different formation. Or a sequence of thin limestone beds, with a total thickness of many tens of meters, may have recognizable fossils in the lower half and distinctly different fossils in the upper half. The limestone sequence is divided into two formations on the basis of its fossil content. Formations are given proper names: the first name is often a geographic location where the rock is well exposed, and the second the name of a rock type, such as Navajo Sandstone, Austin Chalk, Baltimore Gneiss, Onondaga Limestone, or Chattanooga Shale. If the formation has a mixture of rock types, so that one rock name does not accurately describe it, it is called simply “formation,” as in the Morrison Formation or the Martinsburg Formation. A contact is the boundary surface between two different rock types or ages of rocks. In sedimentary rock formations, the contacts are usually bedding planes. Figure 14.32 shows the three formations that make up the upper part of the canyon walls in Grand Canyon National Park in Arizona. The contacts between formations are also shown.

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Kaibab Limestone

Contacts Toroweap Formation

Coconino Sandstone

FIGURE 14.32 The upper three formations in the cliffs of the Grand Canyon, Arizona. The Kaibab Limestone and the Coconino Sandstone are resistant in the dry climate and form cliffs. The Toroweap Formation contains some shale and is less resistant, forming slopes. The tan lines are drawn to show the approximate contacts or boundaries between the formations. Photo by David McGeary

INTERPRETATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Sedimentary rocks are important in interpreting the geologic history of an area. Geologists examine sedimentary formations to look for clues such as fossils; sedimentary structures; grain shape, size, and composition; and the overall shape and extent of the formation. These clues are useful in determining the source area of the sediment, environment of deposition, and the possible plate-tectonic setting at the time of deposition.

Source Area The source area of a sediment is the locality that eroded and provided the sediment. The most important things to determine about a source area are the type of rocks that were exposed in it and its location and distance from the site of eventual deposition. The rock type exposed in the source area determines the character of the resulting sediment. The composition of a sediment can indicate the source area rock type, even if the source area has been completely eroded away. A conglomerate may contain cobbles of basalt, granite, and chert; these rock types

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were obviously in its source area. An arkose containing coarse feldspar, quartz, and biotite may have come from a granitic source area. Furthermore, the presence of feldspar indicates the source area was not subjected to extensive chemical weathering and that erosion probably took place in an arid environment with high relief. A quartz sandstone containing well-rounded quartz grains, on the other hand, probably represents the erosion and deposition of quartz grains from preexisting sandstone. Quartz is a hard, tough mineral very resistant to rounding by abrasion, so if quartz grains are well-rounded, they have undergone many cycles of erosion, transportation, and deposition, probably over tens of millions of years. Sedimentary rocks are also studied to determine the direction and distance to the source area. Figure 14.33 shows how several characteristics of sediment may vary with distance from a source area. Many sediment deposits get thinner away from the source, and the sediment grains themselves usually become finer and more rounded. Sedimentary structures often give clues about the directions of ancient currents (paleocurrents) that deposited sediments. Refer back to figure 14.24 and notice how cross-beds slope downward in the direction of current flow. Ancient current direction can also be determined from asymmetric ripple marks (figure 14.26C and D).

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Source area

Rubble Direction of transport

Gravel

Sand Silt and clay Site of deposition

FIGURE 14.33 Sediment deposits often become thinner away from the source area, and sediment grains usually become finer and more rounded. The rocks that form from these sediments would change with distance from the source area from breccia to conglomerate to sandstone to shale. See appendix F for rock symbols.

Environment of Deposition Figure 14.34 shows the common environments in which sediments are deposited. Geologists study modern environments in great detail so that they can interpret ancient rocks. Clues to the ancient environment of deposition come from a rock’s composition, the size and sorting and rounding of the grains, the sedimentary structures and fossils present, and the vertical sequence of the sedimentary layers. Continental environments include alluvial fans, river channels, flood plains, lakes, and dunes. Sediments deposited on land are subject to erosion, so they often are destroyed. The great bulk of sedimentary rocks comes from the more easily preserved shallow marine environments,

such as deltas, beaches, lagoons, shelves, and reefs. The characteristics of major environments are covered in detail in chapters 3, 16, and 18–20. In this section, we describe the main sediment types and sedimentary structures found in each environment.

Glacial Environments Glacial ice often deposits narrow ridges and layers of sediment in valleys and widespread sheets of sediment on plains. Glacial sediment (till) is an unsorted mix of unweathered boulders, cobbles, pebbles, sand, silt, and clay. The boulders and cobbles may be scratched from grinding over one another under the great weight of the ice.

Glaciers Alluvial fans

CONTINENTAL ENVIRONMENTS

Flood plain Sand dunes River channel

Beach Lake

MARINE ENVIRONMENTS

Reef Shelf Slope Delta Lagoon Barrier island Submarine canyon

FIGURE 14.34

Deep sea floor

Abyssal fan (turbidity currents)

The common sedimentary environments of deposition.

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rocks. River channel deposits typically contain cross-beds and current ripple marks. Broad, flat flood plains are covered by periodic floodwaters, which deposit thin-bedded shales characterized by mud cracks and fossil footprints of animals. Hematite may color flood-plain deposits red.

Lake Thin-bedded shale, perhaps containing fish fossils, is deposited on lake bottoms. If the lake periodically dries up, the shales will be mud-cracked and perhaps interbedded with evaporites such as gypsum or rock salt.

Delta

Channel Flood plain Channel

FIGURE 14.35 Alluvial fan deposits, Baja California. A channel deposit of conglomerate occurs within the coarse-grained sequence. Photo by David McGeary

Shrub

Flood plain

Geologist’s View Alluvial Fan As streams emerge from mountains onto flatter plains, they deposit broad, fan-shaped piles of sediment. The sediment often consists of coarse, arkosic sandstones and conglomerates, marked by coarse cross-bedding and lens-like channel deposits (figure 14.35).

River Channel and Flood Plain Rivers deposit elongate lenses of conglomerate or sandstone in their channels (figure 14.36). The sandstones may be arkoses or may consist of sand-sized fragments of fine-grained

A delta is a body of sediment deposited when a river flows into standing water, such as the sea or a lake. Most deltas contain a great variety of subenvironments but are generally made up of thick sequences of siltstone and shale, marked by low-angle cross-bedding and cut by coarser channel deposits. Delta sequences may contain beds of peat or coal, as well as marine fossils such as clam shells.

Beach, Barrier Island, Dune A barrier island is an elongate bar of sand built by wave action. Well-sorted quartz sandstone with well-rounded grains is deposited on beaches, barrier islands, and dunes. Beaches and barrier islands are characterized by cross-bedding (often lowangle) and marine fossils. Dunes have both high-angle and lowangle cross-bedding and occasionally contain fossil footprints of land animals such as lizards. All three environments can also contain carbonate sand in tropical regions, thus yielding crossbedded clastic limestones.

Lagoon River channel Flood plain

A semienclosed, quiet body of water between a barrier island and the mainland is a lagoon. Fine-grained dark shale, cut by tidal channels of coarse sand and containing fossil oysters and other marine organisms, is formed in lagoons. Limestones may also form in lagoons adjacent to reefs (see figure 14.14).

Shallow Marine Shelves

Old abandoned channel

FIGURE 14.36 A river deposits an elongate lens of sand and gravel in its channel. Fine-grained silt and clay are deposited beside the channel on the river’s flood plain.

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On the broad, shallow shelves adjacent to most shorelines, sediment grain size decreases offshore. Widespread deposits of sandstone, siltstone, and shale can be deposited on such shelves. The sandstone and siltstone contain symmetrical ripple marks, low-angle cross-beds, and marine fossils such as clams and snails. If fine-grained tidal flats near shore are alternately covered and exposed by the rise and fall of tides, mud-cracked marine shale will result.

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Reefs Massive limestone forms in reef cores, with steep beds of limestone breccia forming seaward of the reef, and horizontal beds of sand-sized and finer-grained limestones forming landward (see figure 14.14). All these limestones are full of fossil fragments of corals, coralline and calcareous algae, and numerous other marine organisms.

Deep Marine Environments On the deep-sea floor are deposited shale and graywacke sandstones. The graywackes are deposited by turbidity currents (figure 14.28) and typically contain graded bedding and current ripple marks.

Transgression and Regression Sea level is not stable. Sea level has risen and fallen many times in the geologic past, flooding and exposing much of the land of the continents as it did so. On a very broad, shallow, marine shelf several types of sediments may be deposited. On the beach and near shore, waves will deposit sand, which is usually derived from land. Farther from shore, in deeper quieter water, land-derived silt and clay will be deposited. If the shelf is broad enough and covered with warm water, corals and algae may form carbonate sediments still farther seaward, beyond the reach of land-derived sediment. These sediments can lithify to form a seaward sequence of sandstone, shale, and limestone (figure 14.37A). If sea level rises or the land sinks (subsides), large areas of land will be flooded and these three environments of rock deposition will migrate across the land (figure 14.37B). This is a transgression of the sea as it moves across the land, and it can result in a bed of sandstone overlain by shale, which in turn is overlain by limestone. Note that different parts of a single rock bed are deposited at different times—the seaward edge of the sandstone bed, for example, is older than the landward edge. In a regression the sea moves off the land and the three rock types are arranged in a new vertical sequence—limestone is overlain by shale and shale by sandstone (figure 14.37C). A drop in sea level alone will not preserve this regression sequence. The land must usually subside rapidly to preserve these rocks so that they are not destroyed by continental erosion. The angles shown in the figure are exaggerated—the rocks often appear perfectly horizontal. Geologists use these two contrasting vertical sequences of rock to identify ancient transgressions and regressions.

Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Rocks The dynamic forces that move plates on Earth are also responsible for the distribution of many sedimentary rocks. As

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such, the distribution of sedimentary rocks often provides information that helps geologists reconstruct past platetectonic settings. In tectonically active areas, particularly along convergent plate boundaries, the thickening of the crust that forms a mountain belt also causes the adjacent crust to subside, forming basins (figure 14.38). Rapid erosion of the rising mountains produces enormous quantities of sediment that are transported by streams and turbidity currents to the adjacent basins. Continued subsidence of the basins results in the formation of great thicknesses of sedimentary rock that record the history of uplift and erosion in the mountain belt. For example, uplift of the ancestral Sierra Nevada and Klamath mountain ranges in California is recorded by the thick accumulation of turbidite deposits preserved in basins to the west of the mountains. There, graywacke sandstone deposited by turbidity currents contains mainly volcanic clasts in the lower part of the sedimentary sequence and abundant feldspar clasts in the upper part of the sequence. This indicates that a cover of volcanic rocks was first eroded from the ancestral mountains, and then, as uplift and erosion continued, the underlying plutonic rocks were exposed and eroded. Other eroded mountains, such as the Appalachians, have left similar records of uplift and erosion in the sedimentary record. It is not uncommon for rugged mountain ranges, such as the Canadian Rockies, European Alps, and Himalayas, that stand several thousand meters above sea level to contain sedimentary rocks of marine origin that were originally deposited below sea level. The presence of marine sedimentary rocks such as limestone, chert, and shale containing marine fossils at high elevations attests to the tremendous uplift associated with mountain building at convergent plate boundaries (see chapter 5). Transform plate boundaries are also characterized by rapid rates of erosion and deposition of sediments as fault-bounded basins open and subside rapidly with continued plate motion. Because of the rapid rate of deposition and burial of organic material, fault-bounded basins are good places to explore for petroleum. Many of the petroleum occurrences in California are related to basins that formed as the San Andreas transform fault developed. A divergent plate boundary may result in the splitting apart of a continent and formation of a new ocean basin. In the initial stages of continental divergence, a rift valley forms and fills with thick wedges of gravel and coarse sand along its fault-bounded margins; lake bed deposits and associated evaporite rocks may form in the bottom of the rift valley (figure 14.39). In the early stages, continental rifts will have extensive volcanics that contribute to the sediments in the rift. The Red Sea and adjacent East African Rift Zone have good examples of the features and sedimentary rocks formed during the initial stages of continental rifting.

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A Along a broad, shallow marine shelf, sand is deposited near shore in shallow water; mud is deposited offshore in deeper water; and, in tropical climates, carbonate sediments are deposited further seaward. Swamps and lagoon

Flood plain

Barrier islands

Shallow seas

Sand (sandstone) Mud (shale) Carbonate (limestone) Shoreline starting position

B As the sea level rises, the coast migrates inland. Sand is deposited on the beach, while mud and carbonate accumulate offshore. Mud buries the sand, and carbonate sediment buries the mud. An uninterrupted layer of sand accumulates across the region, but at n any given time, it is deposited only at sio the beach. res

Tr a

ns

g

Shoreline ending position Sea level rises

Shoreline starting position

ion ss e gr Re

C As the sea level falls, the coast migrates seaward. Areas that had been accumulating carbonate sediment become buried by mud, the mud becomes buried by sand, and the sand becomes buried by sediments derived from land.

Sea level falls Shoreline starting position

Throughout the process, mud layers are being compressed to become shale; the carbonate layers are becoming limestone; and the sand layers are becoming sandstone. Shoreline ending position

FIGURE 14.37 Transgressions and regressions of the sea can form distinctive sequences of sedimentary rocks.

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Accretionary wedge (fine-grained sediments scraped off oceanic crust)

Trench

Sea floor

Forearc basin (turbidites)

Mountain belt Magmatic arc

Foreland basin

Sea level Oceanic crust

Continental crust

Lithosphere

Asthenosphere

FIGURE 14.38 Sedimentary basins associated with convergent plate boundary include a forearc basin on the oceanward side that contains mainly clastic sediments deposited by streams and turbidity currents from an eroding magmatic arc. Toward the craton (continent), a foreland basin also collects clastic sediment derived from the uplifted mountain belt and craton.

Gravel and coarse sand

Lake sediments

Evaporites Basalt eruptions

Continental crust

Asthenosphere

Lithosphere

FIGURE 14.39 Divergent plate boundary showing thick wedges of gravel and coarse sand along fault-bounded margins of developing rift valley. Lake bed deposits and evaporite rocks are located on the floor of the rift valley. Refer to figures 4.20 and 4.22 for more detail of faulted margin and sediments deposited along a rifted continental margin.

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Summary Sediment forms by the weathering and erosion of preexisting rocks and by chemical precipitation, sometimes by organisms. Gravel, sand, silt, and clay are sediment particles defined by grain size. The composition of sediment is governed by the rates of chemical weathering, mechanical weathering, and erosion. During transportation, grains can become rounded and sorted. Sedimentary rocks form by lithification of sediment, by crystallization from solution, or by consolidation of remains of organisms. Sedimentary rocks may be detrital, chemical, or organic. Detrital sedimentary rocks form mostly by compaction and cementation of grains. Matrix can partially fill the pore space of clastic rocks.

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Conglomerate forms from coarse, rounded sediment grains that often have been transported only a short distance by a river or waves. Sandstone forms from sand deposited by rivers, wind, waves, or turbidity currents. Shale forms from river, lake, or ocean mud. Limestone consists of calcite, formed either as a chemical precipitate in a reef or, more commonly, by the cementation of shell and coral fragments or of oöids. Dolomite usually forms from the alteration of limestone by magnesium-rich solutions. Chert consists of silica and usually forms from the accumulation of microscopic marine organisms. Recrystallization often destroys the original texture of chert (and some limestones). Evaporites, such as rock salt and gypsum, form as water evaporates. Coal, a major fuel, is consolidated plant material. Sedimentary rocks are usually found in beds separated by bedding planes because the original sediments are deposited in horizontal layers. Cross-beds and ripple marks develop as moving sediment forms ripples and dunes during transport by wind, underwater currents, and waves. A graded bed forms as coarse particles fall from suspension before fine particles due to decreasing water flow velocity in a turbidity current. Mud cracks form in drying mud. Fossils are the traces of an organism’s hard parts or tracks preserved in rock. A formation is a convenient rock unit for mapping and describing rock. Formations are lithologically distinguishable from adjacent rocks; their boundaries are contacts. Geologists try to determine the source area of a sedimentary rock by studying its grain size, composition, and sedimentary structures. The source area’s rock type and location are important to determine. The environment of deposition of a sedimentary rock is determined by studying bed sequence, grain composition and rounding, and sedimentary structures. Typical environments include alluvial fans, river channels, flood plains, lakes, dunes, deltas, beaches, shallow marine shelves, reefs, and the deep-sea floor. Plate tectonics plays an important role in the distribution of sedimentary rocks; the occurrence of certain types of sedimentary rocks is used by geologists to construct past platetectonic settings.

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Terms to Remember alluvial fan 357 bedding 366 bedding plane 366 cement 355 cementation 355 chemical sedimentary rocks 356 chert 364 clastic texture 356 clay 353 coal 366 compaction 355 conglomerate 356 contact 372 cross-beds 366 crystalline texture 356 crystallization 356 deposition 354 detrital sedimentary rocks 356 dolomite 363 environment of deposition 354 evaporite 364 formation 372 fossil 369 graded bed 369

gravel 353 limestone 360 lithification 355 matrix 357 mud crack 369 organic sedimentary rock 356 original horizontality 366 pore space 355 recrystallization 361 ripple marks 369 rounding 353 sand 353 sandstone 357 sediment 352 sedimentary breccia 356 sedimentary rocks 356 sedimentary structures 366 shale 357 silt 353 sorting 353 source area 373 superposition 366 transportation 353 turbidity current 369

Testing Your Knowledge Use the following questions to prepare for exams based on this chapter. 1. Quartz is a common mineral in sandstone. Under certain circumstances, feldspar is common in sandstone, even though it normally weathers rapidly to clay. What conditions of climate, weathering rate, and erosion rate could lead to a feldspar-rich sandstone? Explain your answer. 2. Describe with sketches how wet mud compacts before it becomes shale. 3. What do mud cracks tell about the environment of deposition of a sedimentary rock? 4. How does a graded bed form?

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5. List the detrital sediment particles in order of decreasing grain size. 6. How does a sedimentary breccia differ in appearance and origin from a conglomerate? 7. Describe three different origins for limestone. 8. How does dolomite usually form? 9. What is the origin of coal? 10. Sketch the cementation of sand to form sandstone. 11. How do evaporites form? Name two evaporites. 12. Name the three most common sedimentary rocks. 13. What is a formation? 14. Explain two ways that cross-bedding can form. 15. Particles of sediment from 1/16 to 2 millimeters in diameter are of what size? a. gravel b. sand c. silt d. clay 16. Rounding is a. the rounding of a grain to a spherical shape b. the grinding away of sharp edges and corners of rock fragments during transportation c. a type of mineral d. none of the preceding 17. Compaction and cementation are two common processes of a. erosion b. transportation c. deposition d. lithification 18. Which is not a chemical or organic sedimentary rock? a. rock salt b. shale c. limestone d. gypsum 19. The major difference between breccia and conglomerate is a. size of grains b. rounding of the grains c. composition of grains d. all of the preceding 20. Which is not a type of sandstone? a. quartz sandstone b. arkose c. graywacke d. coal

21. Shale differs from mudstone in that a. shale has larger grains b. shale is visibly layered and fissile; mudstone is massive and blocky c. shale has smaller grains d. there is no difference between shale and mudstone 22. The chemical element found in dolomite not found in limestone is a. Ca

b. Mg

c. C

d. O

e. Al 23. In a graded bed, the particle size a. decreases upward b. decreases downward c. increases in the direction of the current d. stays the same 24. A body or rock of considerable thickness with characteristics that distinguish it from adjacent rock units is called a/an a. formation

b. contact

c. bedding plane

d. outcrop

25. If sea level drops or the land rises, what is likely to occur? a. a flood

b. a regression

c. a transgression

d. no geologic change will take place

26. Thick accumulations of graywacke and volcanic sediments can indicate an ancient a. divergent plate boundary b. convergent boundary c. transform boundary 27. A sedimentary rock made of fragments of preexisting rocks is a. organic

b. chemical

c. clastic 28. Clues to the nature of the source area of sediment can be found in a. the composition of the sediment b. sedimentary structures c. rounding of sediment d. all of the preceding

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Expanding Your Knowledge 1. How might graded bedding be used to determine the tops and bottoms of sedimentary rock layers in an area where sedimentary rock is no longer horizontal? What other sedimentary structures can be used to determine the tops and bottoms of tilted beds? 2. Which would weather faster in a humid climate, a quartz sandstone or an arkose? Explain your answer. 3. A cross-bedded quartz sandstone may have been deposited as a beach sand or as a dune sand. What features could you look for within the rock to tell if it had been deposited on a beach? On a dune? 4. Why is burial usually necessary to turn a sediment into a sedimentary rock?

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to the end-of-chapter multiple choice questions, additional readings and Google Earth exercises, Internet exercises, and much more. The URLs listed in this book are given as links in chapter web pages, making it easy to go to a website without typing in its URL. http://www.uoregon.edu/⬃rdorsey/SedResources.html Web Resources for Sedimentary Geology site contains a comprehensive listing of resources available on the worldwide web. http://www.lib.utexas.edu/geo/folkready/folkprefrev.html Online version of Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks by Professor Robert Folk at the University of Texas at Austin. http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/seds/ Visit the U.S. Geological Survey Bedform and Sedimentology site for computer and photographic images and movies of sedimentary structures.

5. Why are most beds of sedimentary rock formed horizontally? 6. Discuss the role of sedimentary rocks in the rock cycle, diagramming the rock cycle as part of your answer. What do sedimentary rocks form from? What can they turn into?

Animations This chapter includes the following animations on the book’s website at www.mhhe.com/carlson9e.

Exploring Web Resources

14.25 Migration of sand grains to form ripples, dunes, and cross-beds 14.28 Formation of graded bed

www.mhhe.com/carlson9e McGraw-Hill’s website for Physical Geology: Earth Revealed 9th edition features a wide variety of study aids, such as animations, quizzes, answers

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15 Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks Relationships to Earth Systems Introduction Factors Controlling the Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks Composition of the Parent Rock Temperature Pressure Fluids Time

Classification of Metamorphic Rocks Nonfoliated Rocks Foliated Rocks

Types of Metamorphism Contact Metamorphism Regional Metamorphism

Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism Foliation and Plate Tectonics Pressure-Temperature Regimes

Hydrothermal Processes Hydrothermal Activity at Divergent Plate Boundaries Water at Convergent Boundaries Metasomatism Hydrothermal Rocks and Minerals

Summary

T

his chapter on metamorphic rocks, the third major category of rocks in the rock cycle, completes our description of Earth materials (rocks and minerals). The information on igneous and sedimentary processes in previous chapters should help you understand metamorphic rocks, which form from preexisting rocks.

Photo taken through a polarizing microscope of a metamorphic rock that was once shale. Micas (brightly colored crystals) grew while the rock was being folded during regional metamorphism. The area shown is approximately 2 centimeters wide. Photo by C. C. Plummer

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CHAPTER 15

Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks IGNEOUS ROCK

Sediment

Weathering and erosion

Solidification

ism

Magma

Metamorph

After reading chapter 12 on weathering, you know how rocks are altered when exposed at Earth’s surface. Metamorphism (a word from Latin and Greek that means literally “changing of form”) also involves alterations, but the changes are due to deep burial, tectonic forces, and/or high temperature rather than conditions found at Earth’s surface. Metamorphic rocks that form deep within Earth’s crust provide geologists with many clues about conditions at depth. Therefore, understanding metamorphism will help you when we consider geologic processes involving Earth’s internal forces. Metamorphic rocks are a feature of the oldest exposed rocks of the continents and of major mountain belts. They are especially important in providing evidence of what happens during subduction and plate convergence. We also discuss hydrothermally deposited rocks and minerals, which are usually found in association with both igneous and metamorphic rocks. Hydrothermal ore deposits, while not volumetrically significant, are of great importance to the world’s supply of metals.

Lithification

SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Partial melting

METAMORPHIC ROCK Rock in mantle

Metamorphism

Remetamorphism

Relationships to Earth Systems Metamorphism takes place at depth in the solid Earth, so it involves no interaction between the Earth systems at the surface of Earth. However, water is important in metamorphic processes. Water from the hydrosphere seeps through cracks and pores in rocks and may penetrate to at least the shallower depths where metamorphism is taking place. Water is also incorporated in minerals that form during igneous and sedimentary processes. When rock containing these minerals is subducted or otherwise carried to depth and heated, the water is driven out of these minerals, affecting the metamorphic process. Water that moves downward cycles back up as hot water after being heated. Hot water rising through rock is important for creating important metallic ore deposits, the hydrothermal deposits discussed toward the end of this chapter. Copper, lead, gold, and other metals are mined from these ore deposits and profoundly affect the biosphere, most notably the human part of the biosphere. But the mining, processing, and disposal of mined metals can adversely affect other living things.

INTRODUCTION From your study so far of Earth materials and the rock cycle, you know that rocks change, given enough time, when their physical environment changes radically. In chapter 11, you saw how deeply buried rocks melt (or partially melt) to form magma when temperatures are high enough. What happens to rocks that are deeply buried but are not hot enough to melt? They become metamorphosed. Metamorphism refers to changes to rocks that take place in Earth’s interior. The changes may be new textures, new mineral assemblages, or both. Transformations

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The atmosphere may have been altered by metamorphism in the geologic past. When the world’s highest mountain chain, the Himalaya, began forming about 60 million years ago, huge quantities of carbon dioxide were released during metamorphism, according to one hypothesis. The Himalayan mountain belt is a product of collision of India with Asia (described in chapter 5). Before the collision, great thicknesses of limestone and other sedimentary rocks built up on the ocean floors separating the landmasses. Upon collision, the sedimentary layers crumpled and portions were deeply buried. These rocks were metamorphosed under the high pressure and temperature conditions. Calcite reacted with quartz and other silicate minerals to produce new minerals as well as carbon dioxide gas. It is estimated that several hundred million tons of CO2 per year were released into the atmosphere over 10 million years. The amount of CO2 added to the atmosphere would have contributed greatly to the greenhouse effect and would account for the warmer climate inferred for that part of Earth’s history.

occur in the solid state (meaning the rock does not melt). The new rock is a metamorphic rock. The conversion of a slice of bread to toast is a solid-state process analogous to metamorphism of rock. When the bread (think “sedimentary rock”) is heated, it converts to toast (think “metamorphic rock”). The toast is texturally and compositionally different from its parent material, bread. Although the rock remains solid during metamorphism, it is important to recognize that fluids, notably water, often play a significant role in the metamorphic process.

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As most metamorphism takes place at moderate to great depths in Earth’s crust, metamorphic rocks provide us with a window to processes that take place deep underground, beyond our direct observation. Metamorphic rocks are exposed over large regions because of erosion of mountain belts and its accompanying uplift due to isostatic adjustment (the vertical movement of a portion of Earth’s crust to achieve balance, described in chapter 1). In fact, the stable cores of continents, known as cratons, are largely metamorphic rocks and granitic plutons. As described in chapter 5 (mountain belts and the continental crust), the North American craton is the central lowlands between the Appalachians and the Rocky Mountains. Very ancient (Precambrian) complexes of metamorphic and intrusive igneous rocks are exposed over much of Canada (known as the Canadian Shield). The inside front cover shows the Canadian Shield as the region underlain by Precambrian rocks. In the Great Plains of the United States, also part of the craton, similar rocks form the basement underlying a veneer of younger sedimentary rocks (see the tan area on the inside front cover map that the legend indicates is “Platform deposits on Precambrian basement”). Ancient metamorphic and plutonic rocks form the cratons of the other continental landmasses (e.g., Africa, Antarctica, Australia) as well. In nearly all cases, a metamorphic rock has a texture clearly different from that of the original rock, or parent rock. When limestone is metamorphosed to marble, for example, the fine grains of calcite coalesce and recrystallize into larger calcite crystals. The calcite crystals are interlocked in a mosaic pattern that gives marble a texture distinctly different from that of the parent limestone. If the limestone is composed entirely of calcite, then metamorphism into marble involves no new minerals, only a change in texture. More commonly, the various elements of a parent rock react chemically and crystallize into new minerals, thus making the metamorphic rock distinct both mineralogically and texturally from the parent rock. This is because the parent rock is unstable in its new environment. The old minerals recrystallize into new ones that are at equilibrium in the new environment. For example, clay minerals form at Earth’s surface (see chapter 12). Therefore, they are stable at the low temperature and pressure conditions both at and just below Earth’s surface. When subjected to the temperatures and pressures deep within Earth’s crust, the clay minerals of a shale can recrystallize into coarse-grained mica. Another example is that under appropriate temperature and pressure conditions, a quartz sandstone with a calcite cement metamorphoses as follows: CaCO3 calcite

SiO2 quartz

CaSiO3 wollastonite (a mineral)

CO2 carbon dioxide

No one has observed metamorphism taking place, just as no one has ever seen a granite pluton form. What, then, leads us to believe that metamorphic rocks form in a solid state (i.e., without melting) at high pressure and temperature? Many metamorphic rocks found on Earth’s surface exhibit contorted layering (figure 15.1). The layering can be demonstrated to have been either

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FIGURE 15.1 Metamorphic rock from Greenland. Metamorphism took place 3,700 million years ago—it is one of the oldest rocks on Earth. Photo by C. C. Plummer

caused by metamorphism or inherited from original, flat-lying sedimentary bedding (even though the rock has since recrystallized). These rocks, now hard and brittle, would shatter if smashed with a hammer. But they must have been ductile (or plastic), capable of being bent and molded under stress, to have been folded into such contorted patterns. In a laboratory, we can reproduce high pressure and temperature conditions and demonstrate such ductile behavior of rocks on a small scale. Therefore, a reasonable conclusion is that these rocks formed at considerable depth, where such conditions exist. Moreover, crystallization of a magma would not produce contorted layering.

FACTORS CONTROLLING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS A metamorphic rock owes its characteristic texture and particular mineral content to several factors, the most important being (1) the composition of the parent rock before metamorphism,

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(2) temperature and pressure during metamorphism, (3) the effects of tectonic forces, and (4) the effects of fluids, such as water.

Composition of the Parent Rock Usually no new elements or chemical compounds are added to the rock during metamorphism, except perhaps water. (Metasomatism, discussed later in this chapter, does involve the addition of other elements.) Therefore, the mineral content of the metamorphic rock is controlled by the chemical composition of the parent rock. For example, a basalt always metamorphoses

into a rock in which the new minerals can collectively accommodate the approximately 50% silica and relatively high amounts of the oxides of iron, magnesium, calcium, and aluminum in the original rock. On the other hand, a limestone, composed essentially of calcite (CaCO3), cannot metamorphose into a silica-rich rock.

Temperature Heat, necessary for metamorphic reactions, comes primarily from the outward flow of geothermal energy from Earth’s deep interior. Usually, the deeper a rock is beneath the surface, the hotter it will be. (An exception to this is the temperature distribution along convergent plate boundaries due to subduction of cold crust, described later in this chapter.) The particular temperature for rock at a given depth depends on the local geothermal gradient (described in chapter 11). Additional heat could be derived from magma, if magma bodies are locally present. A mineral is said to be stable if, given enough time, it does not react with another substance or convert to a new mineral or substance. Any mineral is stable only within a given temperature range. The stability temperature range of a mineral varies with factors such as pressure and the presence or absence of other substances. Some minerals are stable over a wide temperature range. Quartz, if not mixed with other minerals, is stable at atmospheric pressure (i.e., at Earth’s surface) up to about

FIGURE 15.2 Confining pressure. (A) The diver’s suit is pressurized to counteract hydrostatic pressure. Object (cube) has a greater volume at low pressure than at high pressure. (B) These styrofoam cups were identical. The shrunken cup was carried to a depth of 2,250 meters by the submersible ALVIN in a biological sampling dive to the Juan de Fuca Ridge, off the coast of Washington state. Photo courtesy of the National Science Foundation-funded REVEL Project, University of Washington

A

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800°C. At higher pressures, quartz remains stable to even higher temperatures. Other minerals are stable over a temperature range of only 100° or 200°C. By knowing (from results of laboratory experiments) the particular temperature range in which a mineral is stable, a geologist may be able to deduce the temperature of metamorphism for a rock that includes that mineral. Minerals stable at higher temperatures tend to be less dense (or have a lower specific gravity) than chemically identical minerals (polymorphs) stable at lower temperatures. (An example, discussed later in this chapter, is sillimanite, which forms at higher temperature and is less dense than andalusite.) As temperature increases, the atoms vibrate more within their sites in the crystal structure. A more open (less tightly packed) crystal structure, such as high-temperature minerals tend to have, allows greater vibration of atoms. (If the heat and resulting vibrations become too great, the bonds between atoms in the crystal break and the substance becomes liquid.) The upper limit on temperature in metamorphism overlaps the temperature of partial melting of a rock. If partial melting takes place, the component that melts becomes a magma; the solid residue remains a metamorphic rock. Temperatures at which the igneous and metamorphic realms can coexist vary considerably. For an ultramafic rock (containing only ferromagnesian silicate minerals), the temperature will be over 1,200°C. For a metamorphosed shale under high water pressure, a granitic melt component can form in the metamorphic rock at temperatures as low as 650°C.

effect of higher temperature is greater than the effect of higher pressure, the new mineral will likely be less dense. A denser new mineral is likely if increasing pressure effects are greater than increasing temperature effects.

Differential Stress Most metamorphic rocks show the effects of tectonic forces. When forces are applied to an object, the object is under stress, force per unit area. If the forces on a body are stronger or weaker in different directions, a body is subjected to differential stress. Differential stress tends to deform objects into oblong or flattened forms. If you squeeze a rubber ball between your thumb and forefinger, the ball is under differential stress. If you squeeze a ball of dough (figure 15.3A), it will remain flattened after you stop squeezing, because dough is ductile (or plastic). To illustrate the difference between confining pressure and differential stress, visualize a drum filled with water. If you place a ball of putty underwater in the bottom of the drum, the ball will not change its shape (its volume will decrease slightly due to the weight of

Compressive stress

Dough ball

Pressure Usually, when we talk about pressure, we mean confining pressure; that is, pressure applied equally on all surfaces of a substance as a result of burial or submergence. A diver senses confining pressure (known as hydrostatic pressure) proportional to the weight of the overlying water (figure 15.2). The pressure uniformly squeezes the diver’s entire body surface. Likewise, an object buried deeply within Earth’s crust is compressed by strong confining pressure, called lithostatic pressure, which forces grains closer together and eliminates pore space. For metamorphism, pressure is usually given in kilobars. A kilobar is 1,000 bars. A bar is very close (0.99 atmospheres) to standard atmospheric pressure, so that, for all practical purposes, a kilobar is the pressure equivalent of a thousand times the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level. The pressure gradient, the increase in lithostatic pressure with depth, is approximately 1 kilobar per each 3.3 kilometers of burial in crustal rock. Any new mineral that has crystallized under high-pressure conditions tends to occupy less space than did the mineral or minerals from which it formed. The new mineral is denser than its low-pressure counterparts because the pressure forces atoms closer together into a more closely packed crystal structure. But what if pressure and temperature both increase, as is commonly the case with increasing depth into the Earth? If the

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A

Dough flattened by shearing

B

Compressive stress

FIGURE 15.3 (A) Compressive stress exerted on a ball of putty by two hands. More force is exerted in the direction of arrows than elsewhere on the putty. (B) Shearing takes place as two hands move parallel to each other at the same time that some compressive force is exerted perpendicular to the flattening putty.

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the overlying water). Now take the putty ball out of the water and place it under the drum. The putty will be flattened into the shape of a pancake due to the differential stress. In this case, the putty is subjected to compressive differential stress or, more simply, compressive stress (as is the dough ball shown in figure 15.3A). Differential stress is also caused by shearing, which causes parts of a body to move or slide relative to one another across a plane. An example of shearing is when you spread out a deck of cards on a table with your hand moving parallel to the table. Shearing often takes place perpendicular to, or nearly perpendicular to, the direction of compressive stress. If you put a ball of putty between your hands and slide your hands while compressing the putty, as shown in figure 15.3B, the putty flattens parallel to the shearing (the moving hands) as well as perpendicular to the compressive stress. Some rocks can be attributed exclusively to shearing during faulting (movement of bedrock along a fracture, described in chapter 6) in a process sometimes called dynamic metamorphism. Rocks in contact along the fault are broken and crushed when movement takes place. A mylonite is an unusual rock that is formed from pulverized rock in a fault zone. The rock is streaked out parallel to the fault in darker and lighter components due to shearing. Mylonites are believed to form at a depth of around a kilometer or so, where the rock is still cool and brittle (rather than ductile), but the pressure is sufficient to compress the pulverized rock into a compact, hard rock. Where found, they occupy zones that are only about a meter or so wide.

Foliation Differential stress has a very important influence on the texture of a metamorphic rock because it forces the constituents of the rock to become parallel to one another. For instance, the pebbles in the metamorphosed conglomerate shown in figure 15.4 were originally more spherical but have been flattened by differential stress. When a rock has a planar texture, it is said to be foliated. Foliation is manifested in various ways. If a platy mineral (such as mica) is crystallizing within a rock that is undergoing differential stress, the mineral grows in such a way that it remains parallel to the direction of shearing or perpen dicular to the direction of compressive stress (figure 15.5). Any platy mineral attempting to grow against shearing is either ground up or forced into alignment. Minerals that crystallize in needlelike shapes (for example, hornblende) behave similarly, growing with their long axes parallel to the plane of foliation. The three very different textures described next (from lowest to highest degree of metamorphism) are all variations of foliation and are important in classifying metamorphic rocks: 1. If the rock splits easily along nearly flat and parallel planes, indicating that preexisting, microscopic, platy minerals were realigned during metamorphism, we say the rock is slaty, or that it possesses slaty cleavage.

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FIGURE 15.4 Metamorphosed conglomerate in which the pebbles have been flattened (sometimes called a stretched pebble conglomerate). Compare to the inset photo of a conglomerate (this is figure 14.6). Background photo by C. C. Plummer; inset photo by David McGeary

2. If visible minerals that are platy or needle-shaped have grown essentially parallel to a plane due to differential stress, the rock is schistose (figure 15.6). 3. If the rock became very ductile and the new minerals separated into distinct (light and dark) layers or lenses, the rock has a layered or gneissic texture, such as in figure 15.13.

Fluids Hot water (as vapor) is the most important fluid involved in metamorphic processes, although other gases, such as carbon dioxide, sometimes play a role. The water may have been trapped in a parent sedimentary rock or given off by a cooling pluton. Water may also be given off from minerals that have water in their crystal structure (e.g., clay, mica). As temperature rises during metamorphism and a mineral becomes unstable, its water is released. Water is thought to help trigger metamorphic chemical reactions. Water, moving through fractures and along grain margins, is a sort of intrarock rapid transit for ions. Under high pressure, it moves between grains, dissolves ions from one mineral, and then carries these ions elsewhere in the rock where they can react with the ions of a second mineral. The new mineral that forms is stable under the existing conditions.

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Platy minerals such as dark mica

Platy minerals such as white mica

A Elongate minerals

Platy minerals

Needlelike minerals such as amphibole B

FIGURE 15.6 Schistose texture.

Platy minerals Elongate minerals

C

FIGURE 15.5 Orientation of platy and elongate minerals in metamorphic rock. (A) Platy minerals randomly oriented (e.g., clay minerals before metamorphism). No differential stress involved. (B) Platy minerals (e.g., mica) and elongate minerals (e.g., amphibole) have crystallized under the influence of compressive stress. (C) Platy and elongate minerals developed with shearing as the dominant stress.

Time The effect of time on metamorphism is hard to comprehend. Most metamorphic rocks are composed predominantly of silicate minerals, and silicate compounds are notorious for their sluggish chemical reaction rates. Garnet crystals taken from a metamorphic rock collected in Vermont were analyzed, and scientists calculated a growth rate of 1.4 millimeters per million years. The garnets’ growth was sustained over a 10.5million-year period. Many laboratory attempts to duplicate metamorphic reactions believed to occur in nature have been frustrated by the time element. The several million years during which a particular combination of temperature and pressure may have prevailed in nature are impossible to duplicate.

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CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS As we noted before, the kind of metamorphic rock that forms is determined by the metamorphic environment (primarily the particular combination of pressure, stress, and temperature) and by the chemical constituents of the parent rock. Many kinds of metamorphic rocks exist because of the many possible combinations of these factors. These rocks are classified based on broad similarities. (Appendix B contains a systematic procedure for identifying common metamorphic rocks.) The relationship of texture to rock name is summarized in table 15.1. First, consider the texture of a metamorphic rock. Is it foliated or nonfoliated (figure 15.7)?

Nonfoliated Rocks If the rock is nonfoliated, it is named on the basis of its composition. The two most common nonfoliated rocks are marble and quartzite, composed, respectively, of calcite and quartz. Marble, a coarse-grained rock composed of interlocking calcite crystals (figure 15.8), forms when limestone recrystallizes during metamorphism. If the parent rock is dolomite, the recrystallized rock is a dolomite marble. Marble has long been valued as a building material and as a material for sculpture (figure 15.8B), partly because it is easily cut and polished and partly because it reflects light in a shimmering pattern, a result of the excellent cleavage of the individual calcite crystals.

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0.5 mm

0.5 mm

A

B

FIGURE 15.7 Photomicrographs taken through a polarizing microscope of metamorphic rocks. (A) Nonfoliated rock and (B) Foliated rock. Multicolored grains are biotite mica; gray and white are mostly quartz. Photos by Lisa Hammersley

TABLE 15.1

Classification and Naming of Metamorphic Rocks (Based Primarily on Texture) Nonfoliated

Name Based on Mineral Content of Rock Usual Parent Rock

Rock Name

Predominant Minerals

Limestone Dolomite

Marble Dolomite marble

Calcite Dolomite

Quartz sandstone Shale Basalt

Quartzite

Quartz

Hornfels Hornfels

Fine-grained micas Fine-grained ferromagnesian minerals, plagioclase

Identifying Characteristics Coarse interlocking grains of calcite (or, less commonly, dolomite) Calcite (or dolomite) has rhombohedral cleavage; hardness intermediate between glass and fingernail. Calcite effervesces in weak acid Rock composed of interlocking small granules of quartz. Has a sugary appearance and vitreous luster; scratches glass A fine-grained, dark rock that generally will scratch glass. May have a few coarser minerals present

Foliated Name Based Principally on Kind of Foliation Regardless of Parent Rock. Adjectives Describe the Composition (e.g., biotite-garnet schist) Texture

Rock Name

Slaty

Slate

Intermediate between slaty and schistose Schistose

Phyllite

Gneissic

Typical Characteristic Minerals

Identifying Characteristics

Clay and other sheet silicates Mica

A very fine-grained rock with an earthy luster. Splits easily into thin, flat sheets Fine-grained rock with a silky luster. Generally splits along wavy surfaces

Schist

Biotite and muscovite amphibole

Gneiss

Feldspar, quartz, amphibole, biotite

Composed of visible platy or elongated minerals that show planar alignment. A wide variety of minerals can be found in various types of schist (e.g., garnet-mica schist, hornblende schist, etc.) Light and dark minerals are found in separate, parallel layers or lenses. Commonly, the dark layers include biotite and hornblende; the light-colored layers are composed of feldspars and quartz. The layers may be folded or appear contorted

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A

FIGURE 15.8 (A) Hand specimen of marble. Inset is a photomicrograph showing interlocking crystals of calcite. Each crystal is approximately 2 millimeters across. (B) Michelangelo’s unfinished sculpture Bound Slave in a block of marble quarried in Carrara, Italy. Photo A by C. C. Plummer; photo B by Nimatallah/Art Resource, NY

B

Marble is, however, highly susceptible to chemical weathering (see chapter 12). Quartzite (figure 15.9) is produced when grains of quartz in sandstone are welded together while the rock is subjected to high temperature. This makes it as difficult to break along grain boundaries as through the grains. Therefore, quartzite, being as hard as a single quartz crystal, is difficult to crush or break. It is the most durable of common rocks used for construction, both because of its hardness and because quartz is not susceptible to chemical weathering. Hornfels is a very fine-grained, nonfoliated, metamorphic rock whose parent rock is either shale or basalt. If it forms from shale, characteristically only microscopically visible micas form from the shale’s clay minerals. Sometimes a few minerals grow large enough to be seen with the naked eye; these are minerals that are especially capable of crystallizing under the particular temperature attained during metamorphism. If hornfels forms from basalt, amphibole, rather than mica, is the predominant fine-grained mineral produced.

Foliated Rocks If the rock is foliated, you need to determine the type of foliation to name the rock. For example, a schistose rock is called a

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FIGURE 15.9 Quartzite. Inset shows photomicrograph taken using a polarizing microscope. Interlocking quartz crystals are about 1⁄2 millimeter across. Photos by C. C. Plummer

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schist. But this name tells us nothing about what minerals are in this rock, so we add adjectives to describe the composition—for example, garnet-mica schist. The following are the most common foliated rocks progressing from lower grade (they usually form at lower temperatures) to higher grade: Slate is a very fine-grained rock that splits easily along flat, parallel planes (figure 15.10). Although some slate forms from volcanic ash, the usual parent rock is shale. Slate develops under temperatures and pressures only slightly greater than those found in the sedimentary realm. The temperatures are not high enough for the rock to thoroughly recrystallize. The important controlling factor is differential stress. The original clay minerals partially recrystallize into equally fine-grained, platy minerals. Under differential stress, the old and new platy minerals are aligned, creating slaty cleavage in the rock. A slate indicates that a relatively cool and brittle rock has been subjected to intense tectonic activity. Because of the ease with which it can be split into thin, flat sheets, slate is used for making chalkboards, pool tables, and roofs. Phyllite is a rock in which the newly formed micas are larger than the platy minerals in slate but still cannot be seen with the naked eye. This requires a further increase in temperature over that needed for slate to form. The very fine-grained mica imparts a satin sheen to the rock, which may otherwise closely resemble slate (figure 15.11). But the slaty cleavage may be crinkled in the process of conversion of slate to phyllite.

FIGURE 15.11 Phyllite, exhibiting a crinkled, silky-looking surface. Photo by C. C. Plummer

A schist is characterized by megascopically visible, approximately parallel-oriented minerals. Platy or elongate minerals that crystallize from the parent rock are clearly visible to the naked eye. Which minerals form depends on the particular combination of temperature and pressure prevailing during recrystallization as well as the composition of the parent rock. Two, of several, schists that form from shale are mica schist and garnet-mica schist (figure 15.12). Although they both have the same parent rock, they form under different combinations of temperature and pressure. If the parent rock is basalt, the schists that form are quite different. If the predominant ferromagnesian mineral that forms during metamorphism of basalt is amphibole, it is an amphibole schist. At a lower grade, the predominant mineral is chlorite, a green micaceous mineral, in a chlorite schist. Gneiss is a rock consisting of light and dark mineral layers or lenses. The highest temperatures and pressures have changed

FIGURE 15.10

FIGURE 15.12

Slate outcrop in Antarctica. Inset is hand specimen of slate. Background photo by P. D. Rowley, U.S. Geological Survey; Inset photo © Parvinder Sethi

Garnet-mica schist. Small, subparallel flakes of muscovite mica reflect light. Garnet crystals give the rock a “raisin bread” appearance. Photo by C. C. Plummer

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The process can be thought of as the “baking” of country rock adjacent to an intrusive contact; hence, the term contact metamorphism. The zone of contact metamorphism (also called an aureole) is usually quite narrow—generally from 1 to 100 meters wide. Differential stress is rarely significant. Therefore, the most common rocks found in an aureole are the nonfoliated rocks: marble when igneous rock intrudes limestone; quartzite when quartz sandstone is metamorphosed; hornfels when shale is scorched. Marble and quartzite also form under conditions of regional metamorphism. When grains of calcite or quartz recrystallize, they tend to be equidimensional, rather than elongate or platy. For this reason, marble and quartzite do not usually exhibit foliation, even though subjected to differential stress during metamorphism.

Regional Metamorphism FIGURE 15.13 Gneiss. Photo by C. C. Plummer

the rock so that minerals have separated into layers. Platy or elongate minerals (such as mica or amphibole) in dark layers alternate with layers of light-colored minerals of no particular shape. Usually, coarse feldspar and quartz are predominant within the light-colored layers. In composition, a gneiss may resemble granite or diorite, but it is distinguishable from those plutonic rocks by its foliation (figure 15.13). Temperature conditions under which a gneiss develops approach those at which granite solidifies. It is not surprising, then, that the same minerals are found in gneiss and in granite. In fact, a previously solidified granite can be converted to a gneiss under appropriate pressure and temperature conditions and if the rock is under differential stress.

TYPES OF METAMORPHISM The two most common types of metamorphism are contact metamorphism and regional metamorphism. Hydrothermal processes, in which hot water plays a major role during metamorphism, are discussed later in this chapter.

Contact Metamorphism Contact metamorphism (also known as thermal metamorphism) is metamorphism in which high temperature is the dominant factor. Confining pressure may influence which new minerals crystallize; however, the confining pressure is usually relatively low. This is because contact metamorphism mostly takes place not too far beneath Earth’s surface (less than 10 kilometers). Contact metamorphism occurs adjacent to a pluton when a body of magma intrudes relatively cool country rock.

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The great majority of the metamorphic rocks found on Earth’s surface are products of regional metamorphism, which is metamorphism that takes place at considerable depth underground (generally greater than 5 kilometers). Regional metamorphic rocks are almost always foliated, indicating differential stress during recrystallization (for this reason, regional metamorphism is sometimes referred to as dynamothermal metamorphism). Metamorphic rocks are prevalent in the most intensely deformed portions of mountain ranges. They are visible where once deeply buried cores of mountain ranges are exposed by erosion. Furthermore, large regions of the continents are underlain by metamorphic rocks, thought to be the roots of ancient mountains long since eroded down to plains or rolling hills. Temperatures during regional metamorphism vary widely. Usually, the temperatures are in the range of 300 to 800°C. Temperature at a particular place depends to a large extent on depth of burial and the geothermal gradient of the region. Locally, temperature may also increase because of heat given off by nearby magma bodies. The high confining pressure is due to burial under 5 or more kilometers of rock. The differential stress is due to tectonism; that is, the constant movement and squeezing of the crust during mountain-building episodes. Temperatures and pressures during metamorphism can be estimated through the results of laboratory experimental studies of minerals. In many cases, we can estimate temperature and pressure by determining the conditions under which an assemblage of several minerals can coexist. In some instances, a single mineral, or index mineral, suffices for determining the pressure and temperature combination under which a rock recrystallized (box 15.2). Depending on the pressure and temperature conditions during metamorphism, a particular parent rock may recrystallize into one of several metamorphic rocks. For example, if basalt is metamorphosed at relatively low temperatures and pressures, it will recrystallize into a greenschist, a schistose rock containing chlorite (a green sheet-silicate), actinolite (a green amphibole), and sodium-rich plagioclase. Or it will recrystallize into a

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P L A N E TA R Y G E O L O G Y 1 5 . 1

Impact Craters and Shock Metamorphism

T

he spectacular collision of the comet Shoemaker-Levy with Jupiter in 1994 served to remind us that asteroids and comets occasionally collide with a planet. Earth is not exempt from collisions. Large meteorites have produced impact craters when they have collided with Earth’s surface. One well-known meteorite crater is Meteor Crater in Arizona, which is a little more than a kilometer in diameter (box figure 1). Many much larger craters are known in Canada, Germany, Australia, and other places. Impact craters display an unusual type of metamorphism called shock metamorphism. The sudden impact of a large extraterrestrial body results in brief but extremely high pressures. Quartz may recrystallize into the rare SiO2 minerals coesite and stishovite. Quartz that is not as intensely impacted suffers damage (detectable under a microscope) to its crystal lattice. The impact of a meteorite also may generate enough heat to locally melt rock. Molten blobs of rock are thrown into the air and become streamlined in the Earth’s atmosphere before solidifying into what are called tektites. Tektites may be found hundreds of kilometers from the point of meteorite impact. A large meteorite would blast large quantities of material high into the atmosphere. According to theory, the change in global climate due to a meteorite impact around 65 million years ago caused extinctions of many varieties of creatures (see box 8.2 on the extinction of dinosaurs). Evidence for this impact includes finding tiny fragments of shock metamorphosed quartz and tektites in sedimentary rock that is 65 million years old. The intense shock caused by a meteorite creates large faults that can be filled with crushed and partially melted rocks. One of the largest such structures, at Sudbury, Ontario, is the host for very rich metallic ore deposits. Shock metamorphosed rock fragments are much more common on the Moon than on Earth. There may be as many as 400,000 craters larger than a kilometer in diameter on the Moon. Mercury’s

greenstone, a rock that has similar minerals but is not foliated. (A greenstone would indicate that the tectonic forces were not strong enough to induce foliation while the basalt was recrystallizing.) At higher temperatures and pressures, the same basalt would recrystallize into an amphibolite, a rock composed of hornblende, plagioclase feldspar, and, perhaps, garnet. Metamorphism of other parent rocks under conditions similar to those that produce amphibolite from basalt should produce the metamorphic rocks shown in table 15.2. The minerals present in a rock indicate its metamorphic grade. Low-grade rocks formed under relatively cool temperatures and high-grade rocks at high temperatures, whereas medium-grade rocks recrystallized at around the middle of the range of metamorphic temperatures. Greenschist and greenstone are regarded as low-grade rocks, while amphibolite is regarded as a medium-grade rock.

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BOX 15.1 ■ FIGURE 1 Meteor Crater in Arizona. Diameter of the crater is 1.2 kilometers. Photo by Frank M. Hanna

surface is remarkably similar to that of the Moon. Our two neighboring planets, Venus and Mars, are not as extensively cratered as is the Moon. This is because these planets, like Earth, have been tectonically active since the time of greatest meteorite bombardment, about 4 billion years ago. If Earth had not been tectonically active and if we didn’t have an atmosphere driving erosion, Earth would have around sixteen times the number of meteorite craters as the Moon and would appear just as pockmarked with craters.

Additional Resource Meteor Crater Web site for Meteor Crater in Arizona •

www.meteorcrater.com/

Prograde Metamorphism When a rock becomes buried to increasingly greater depths, it is subjected to increasingly greater temperatures and pressures and will undergo prograde metamorphism—that is, it recrystallizes into a higher-grade rock. To show how rocks are changed by regional metamorphism, we look at what happens to shale during prograde metamorphism as progressively greater pressure and temperature act on a rock type with increasing depth in Earth’s crust (figure 15.14). Slate, which looks quite similar to the shale from which it forms, is the lowest-grade rock in progressive metamorphism. Its slaty cleavage develops as a result of differential stress during incipient recrystallization of clay minerals to other platy minerals. As described earlier, phyllite is a rock that is transitional between slate and schist and, as such, we expect it to have formed at a depth between where slate and schist form.

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I N G R E AT E R D E P T H 1 5 . 2

Index Minerals

C

ertain minerals can only form under a restricted range of pressure and temperature. Stability ranges of these minerals have been determined in laboratories. When found in metamorphic rocks, these minerals can help us infer, within limits, what the pressure and temperature conditions were during metamorphism. For this reason, they are known as index minerals. Among the best known are andalusite, kyanite, and sillimanite. All three have an identical chemical composition (Al2SiO5) but different crystal structures (they are polymorphs). They are found in metamorphosed shales that have an abundance of aluminum. Box figure 1 is a phase diagram showing the pressure-temperature fields in which each is stable. Box figure 2 is a map showing metamorphic patterns across the Grenville Province of the Canadian Shield. These patterns were established using the minerals andalusite-sillimanitekyanite. If andalusite is found in a rock, this indicates that pressures and temperatures were relatively low. Andalusite is often found in contact metamorphosed shales (hornfels). Kyanite, when found in

Superior Province Sudbury

North

Lake Nipissing

750°C Georgian Bay

Ottaw a Ri ve r en 70 0°C vill eP rov in Gr

Kyanite

ce

Bancroft

Ottawa

Sillimanite Lamark 0°C °C 60 0 Andalusite 50 Lake Simcoe 0

Madoc Paleozoic cover rocks

50 km Lake Ontario

BOX 15.2 ■ FIGURE 2

2

400

800

ANDALUSITE

4

SILLIMANITE

6 8

KYANITE

10 12

900 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Depth in kilometers

Pressure in kilobars

Temperature in C 500 600 700

BOX 15.2 ■ FIGURE 1 Phase diagram showing the stability relationships for the Al2SiO5 minerals. M. J. Holdaway, 1971, American Journal of Science, v. 271. Reprinted by permission of American Journal of Science and Michael J. Holdaway

TABLE 15.2

Regional metamorphic patterns across the Grenville Province of the Canadian Shield. Colored bands represent reconstructed burial temperatures based on minerals present in the metamorphic rocks. Higher grades of metamorphism occur in the west of the Grenville Province and indicate deeper burial and higher temperatures in that area. Courtesy of Nick

Eyles

schists, is regarded as an indicator of high pressure; but note that the higher the temperature of the rock, the greater the pressure needed for kyanite to form. Sillimanite is an indicator of high temperature and can be found in some contact metamorphic rocks adjacent to very hot intrusions as well as in regionally metamorphosed schists and gneisses that formed at considerable depths. Note that if you find all three minerals in the same rock and could determine that they were mutually stable, you could infer that the temperature was close to 500°C and the confining pressure was almost 4 kilobars during metamorphism.

Regional Metamorphic Rocks That Form under Approximately Similar Pressure and Temperature Conditions

Parent Rock

Rock Name

Predominant Minerals

Basalt Shale Quartz sandstone Limestone or dolomite

Amphibolite Mica schist Quartzite Marble

Hornblende, plagioclase, garnet Biotite, muscovite, quartz, garnet Quartz Calcite or dolomite

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Contact metamorphic aureole Mountains Solidifying pluton

Folded, unmetamorphosed sedimentary rock

Slate (vertical slaty cleavage) Phyllite Mica schist Rising magma body (diapir) Garnet-mica schist

Tectonic forces (result in compressive stress)

Gneiss Migmatite

metamorphism. But why doesn’t a rock recrystallize to one stable at lower temperature and pressure conditions during its long journey to the surface, where we now find it? The answer is that water is usually available during prograde metamorphism and the rock is relatively dry after reaching its peak temperatures. The absence of water means that chemical reaction will be prohibitively slow at the cooler temperatures. Substantial retrograde metamorphism only occurs if additional water is introduced to the rock after peak metamorphism. Tectonic forces at work during the peak of metamorphism fracture the rock extensively and permit water to get to the mineral grains. After tectonic forces are relaxed, the rocks move upward as a large block as isostatic adjustment takes place. It is unusual to find rocks that indicate retrograde metamorphism. These are rocks that recrystallized under lower temperature and pressure conditions than during the peak of metamorphism. They were fractured during their ascent, permitting water to trigger reactions to new, lower-grade minerals.

Pressure and Temperature Paths in Time Index minerals and mineral assemblages in a rock can be used to determine the approximate temperature and pressure conditions that prevailed during metamorphism. Precise determination of the chemical composition of some minerals can determine the temperature or pressure present during the

FIGURE 15.14 Schematic cross section representing an approximately 30-kilometer portion of Earth’s crust during metamorphism. Rock names given are those produced from shale.

Schist forms at higher temperatures and usually higher pressures than does phyllite. However, schist with shale as a parent rock forms over a wide range of temperatures and pressures. Figure 15.14 indicates the metamorphic setting for two varieties of schist (there are a number of others) that form from shale. Mica schist indicates a grade of metamorphism slightly higher than that of phyllite. Garnet requires higher temperatures to crystallize in a schist, so the garnet-mica schist probably formed at a deeper level than that of mica schist. If schist is subjected to high enough temperatures, its constituents become more mobile and the rock recrystallizes into gneiss. The constituents of feldspar migrate (probably as ions) into planes of weakness caused by differential stress where feldspars, along with quartz, crystallize to form lightcolored layers. The ferromagnesian minerals remain behind as the dark layers. If the temperature is high enough, partial melting of rock may take place, and a magma collects in layers within the foliation planes of the solid rock. After the magma solidifies, the rock becomes a migmatite, a mixed igneous and metamorphic rock (figure 15.15). A migmatite can be thought of as a “twilight zone” rock that is neither fully igneous nor entirely metamorphic. The metamorphic rocks that we see usually have minerals that formed at or near the highest temperature reached during

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FIGURE 15.15 Migmatite in the Daniels Range, Antarctica. Photo by C. C. Plummer

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growth of a particular mineral. The usual basis for determining temperature (geothermometry) or pressure (geobarometry) during mineral growth is the ratio of pairs of elements (e.g., Fe and Al) within the crystal structure of the mineral. Modern techniques allow us to determine chemical compositional changes across a grain of a mineral in a rock. An electron microprobe is a microscope that allows the user to focus on a tiny portion of a mineral in a rock, then shoot a very narrow beam of electrons into that point in the mineral. The extent and manner in which the beam is absorbed by the mineral are translated (by computer) into the precise chemical composition of the mineral at that point. If the mineral is zoned (that is, the chemical composition changes within the mineral, as described in chapter 9), the electron microprobe will indicate the differing composition within the mineral grain.

Mineral stops growing

The mineral at a particular time during growth

Slice through the center of the mineral

FIGURE 15.16 Pressure-temperature-time path for growth of a mineral during metamorphism. An electron microprobe is used to determine the precise chemical composition of the concentric zones of the mineral. The data are used to determine the pressure and temperature during the growth of the mineral. Three stages during the growth of the mineral are correlated to the graph—beginning of growth (center of crystal), an arbitrary point during its growth, and the end of crystallization (the outermost part of the crystal). The green segment of the path indicates increasing pressure and temperature during metamorphism. The orange segment indicates that pressure was decreasing while temperature continued to rise. The blue segment indicates temperature and pressure were both decreasing. The decrease in pressure is likely to be the result of uplift and erosion at the surface. The dashed lines are inferred pressure and temperature paths before and after metamorphism.

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A mineral will grow from the center outward, adding layers of atoms as it becomes larger. If pressure and temperature conditions change as the mineral grows, the concentric zoning will reflect those changes. Figure 15.16 shows the results of one such study. The diagram shows the changes of temperature and pressure in time, with the line showing the temperaturepressure -time path. If pressure and temperature are both increasing, this indicates the rock is being buried deeper while becoming hotter. If temperature and pressure are both decreasing, the rock is cooling down at the same time that pressure is being reduced because of erosion at Earth’s surface.

PLATE TECTONICS AND METAMORPHISM Studies of metamorphic rocks have provided important information on conditions and processes within the lithosphere and have aided our understanding of plate tectonics. Conversely, plate tectonic theory has provided models that allow us to explain many of the observed characteristics of metamorphic rocks.

Foliation and Plate Tectonics

s l begin Minera ing lliz crysta

Increasing pressure (depth)

Increasing temperature

397

Figure 15.17 shows an oceanic-continental boundary (oceanic lithosphere is subducted beneath continental lithosphere). One of the things the diagram shows is where differential stress that is responsible for foliation is taking place. Shearing takes place in the subduction zone where the oceanic crust slides beneath continental lithosphere. For here, we infer that the sedimentary rocks and some of the basalt becomes foliated, during metamorphism, roughly parallel to the subduction zone (parallel to the lines in the diagram). Within the thickest part of the continental crust shown in figure 15.17, flowage of rock is indicated by the purple arrows. The crust is thickest here beneath a growing mountain belt. The thickening is due to the compression caused by the two colliding plates. Within this part of the crust, rocks flow downward and then outward (as indicated by the arrows) in a process (described in chapter 5 on mountains) of gravitational collapse and spreading. Under this concept, the central part of a mountain belt becomes too high after plate convergence and is gravitationally unstable. This forces the rock downward and outward. Regional metamorphism takes place throughout and we expect foliation in the recrystallizing rocks to be approximately parallel to the arrows.

Pressure-Temperature Regimes Before the advent of plate tectonics, geologists were hardpressed to explain how some rocks apparently were metamorphosed at relatively cool temperatures yet high pressures. We expect rocks to be hotter as they become more deeply buried. How could rocks stay cool, yet be deeply buried?

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Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks Gravitational collapse and spreading

Continental crust Sedimentary rock in accretionary wedge A

Oceanic crust

Isotherms

B

C

300°C

300°C

600°

C

600°C

1100°C Magma

50 Kilometers

Mantle (asthenosphere)

Kilometers

50

Mantle (lithosphere)

Zone of intense shearing

110

0°C

Mantle (asthenosphere)

FIGURE 15.17 Metamorphism across a convergent plate boundary. All rock that is hotter than 300° or deeper than 5 kilometers is likely to be undergoing metamorphism. Modified from W. G. Ernst. Metamorphism and Plate Tectonic Regimes. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, 1975; p. 425. Reprinted by permission of the author.

Figure 15.18 shows experimentally determined stability fields for a few metamorphic minerals. Line x indicates a common geothermal gradient during metamorphism. At the appropriate pressure and temperature, kyanite begins to crystallize in the rock. If it is buried deeper, its pressure and temperature would change along line x. Eventually, it would cross the stability boundary and sillimanite would crystallize rather than kyanite. By contrast, if a rock contains glaucophane (sodiumrich amphibole), rather than calcium-rich hornblende, the rock must have formed under high pressure but abnormally low temperature for its depth of burial. Line y represents a possible geothermal gradient that must have been very low and the increase in temperature was small with respect to the increase in pressure. If we return to figure 15.17, we can use it to see how plate tectonics explains these very different pressure-temperature regimes at a convergent boundary. Confining pressure is directly related to depth. For this reason, we expect the same pressure at any given depth. For example, the pressure corresponding to 20 kilometers is the same under a hot volcanic area as it is within the relatively cool rocks of a plate’s interior. Temperature, however, is quite variable as indicated by the dashed red lines. Each of these lines is an isotherm, a line connecting points of equal temperature.

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Each of the three places (A, B, and C) in figure 15.17 would have a different geothermal gradient. If you were somehow able to push a thermometer through the lithosphere, you would find the rock is hotter at shallower depths in areas with higher geothermal gradients than at places where the geothermal gradient is low. As indicated in figure 15.17, the geothermal gradient is higher progressing downward through an active volcanic-plutonic complex (for instance, the Cascade Mountains of Washington and Oregon) than it is in the interior of a plate (beneath the Great Plains of North America, for example). The isotherms are bowed upward in the region of the volcanicplutonic complex because magma created at lower levels works its way upward and brings heat from the asthenosphere into the mantle and crust of the continental lithosphere. At point C we would expect the metamorphism that takes place to result in minerals that reflect the high temperature relative to pressure conditions such as those along line x in figure 15.18. If we focus our attention at the line at A in figure 15.17, we can understand how minerals can form under high pressure but relatively low temperature conditions. You may observe that the bottom of line A is at a depth of about 50 kilometers, and if a hypothetical thermometer were here, it would read just over 300° because it would be just below the 300° isotherm. Compare this to vertical line C in the volcanic-plutonic

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Temperature (°C)

Ge

oth

1

Pressure in kilobars

3

al g

rad

al erm oth t y Ge dien gra

2

erm

400

ien

tx

500

Ho

6 7

rnb

au

Sillimanite

len

co

de

ph

16

24

an

e 32

8 9

800

Andalusite

Kyanite

Gl

700

8

4 5

600

Depth in kilometers

300

200

Hornblende

FIGURE 15.18 Stability fields for a few minerals. (Many more mineral stability fields can be used for increased accuracy.) The fields are based on laboratory research. Prograde metamorphism taking place with a geothermal gradient x involves a high temperature increase with increasing pressure. Prograde metamorphism under conditions of geothermal gradient y involves low temperature increase with increasing pressure. Hornblende is a calcium-bearing amphibole; glaucophane is a sodium-bearing amphibole.

complex. The confining pressure at the base of this line would be the same as at the base of line A, yet the temperature at the base of line C would be well over 600°. The minerals that could form at the base of line A would not be the same as those that could form at line C. Therefore, we would expect quite different metamorphic rocks in the two places, even if the parent rock had been the same (box 15.3). So when we find high-pressure/low-temperature minerals (such as glaucophane) in a rock, we can infer that metamorphism took place while subduction carried basalt and overlying sedimentary rocks downward. Thus, plate tectonics accounts for the abnormally high-pressure/low-temperature geothermal gradients (such as line y in figure 15.18).

HYDROTHERMAL PROCESSES Rocks that have precipitated from hot water or have been altered by hot water passing through are hard to classify. As described earlier, hot water is involved to some extent in most metamorphic processes. Beyond metamorphism, hot water also plays an important role creating new rocks and minerals. These form entirely by precipitation of ions derived from hydrothermal solutions. Hydrothermal minerals can form in void spaces or between the grains of a host rock. An aggregate of hydrothermal minerals, a hydrothermal rock, may crystallize within a preexisting fracture in a rock to form a hydrothermal vein.

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WEB BOX 15.3

Metamorphic Facies and Its Relationship to Plate Tectonics

M

etamorphic rocks that contain the same set of pressure- or temperature-sensitive minerals are regarded as belonging to the same metamorphic facies, implying that they formed under broadly similar pressure and temperature conditions. Early in the twentieth century, geologists assigned metamorphosed basalts to a metamorphic facies based on the assemblage of minerals present in a rock. For instance, metabasalts that are mostly hornblende and plagioclase feldspar belong to the amphibolite facies (named after the rock). If a rock of the same chemical composition is composed largely of actinolite (an amphibole), chlorite (a green sheet silicate mineral) and sodium-rich feldspar, it belongs to the greenschist facies. Field relationships indicated that the greenschist facies represents metamorphism under lower pressure and temperature conditions than those of the amphibolite facies. Classifying rocks by assigning them to metamorphic facies evolved, after laboratory investigations, into a more quantitative system than the vaguely defined “grade” (low, intermediate, high). To learn more, including how the various facies are used to infer the plate tectonic setting of metamorphism, go to the box in the website www.mhhe.com/carlson9e.

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TABLE 15.3

Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks

Hydrothermal Processes

Role of Water

Submarine eruption

Hot springs and black smokers

Name of Process or Product

Water transports ions between Metamorphism grains in a rock. Some water may be incorporated into crystal structures. Water brings ions from outside the rock, and they are added to the rock during metamorphism. Other ions may be dissolved and removed.

Metasomatism

Water passes through cracks or pore spaces in rock and precipitates minerals on the walls of cracks and within pore spaces.

Hydrothermal rocks

Basalt and gabbro

Hydrothermal processes are summarized in table 15.3. As we have seen, water is important for metamorphic processes not only because water transports ions from one mineral to another but because many of the minerals (the micas, for instance) that crystallize during metamorphism incorporate water into their crystal structures.

Hydrothermal Activity at Divergent Plate Boundaries

Zone where rocks are being metamorphosed

Circulating water

Ultramafic rocks

FIGURE 15.19 Cross section of a mid-oceanic ridge (divergent plate boundary). Water descends through fractures in the oceanic crust, is heated by magma and hot igneous rocks, and rises.

Ore Deposits at Divergent Plate Boundaries As the seawater moves through the crust, it dissolves metals and sulfur from the crustal rocks and magma. When the hot, metal-rich solutions contact cold seawater, metal sulfides are precipitated in a mound around the hydrothermal vent. This process has been filmed in the Pacific, where some springs spew clouds of fine-grained ore minerals that look like black smoke (figure 15.21). To learn more about seafloor hydrothermal vents, go to www.ocean.udel.edu/deepsea/level-2/geology/ vents.html. Click on the link at the bottom of the page to watch a video clip of a “black smoker.” The metals in rift-valley hot springs are predominantly iron, copper, and zinc, with smaller amounts of manganese, gold, and silver. Although the mounds are nearly solid metal

Hydrothermal processes are particularly important at midoceanic ridges (which are also divergent plate boundaries). As shown in figure 15.19, cold seawater moves downward through cracks in the basaltic crust and is cycled upward by heat from magma beneath the ridge crest. Very hot water returns to the ocean at submarine hot Hot water released Hot water released Water trapped in springs (hydrothermal vents). by sedimentary rock from solidifying magma sedimentary rock Hot water traveling through the basalt and gabbro of the oceanic lithosphere helps Water trapped in basalt metamorphose these rocks while they are close to the divergent boundary. This is Oceanic crust Continental crust sometimes called seafloor metamorphism. (lithosphere) During metamorphism, the ferromagnesian Mantle (lithosphere) igneous minerals, olivine and pyroxene, Mantle become converted to hydrous (water(lithosphere) bearing) minerals such as amphibole. An Magma Mantle (asthenosphere) important consequence of this is that the Water lowers melting hydrous minerals may eventually contribute temperature and helps Hot water create magma to magma generation at convergent boundreleased from basalt aries. After oceanic crust is subducted, the minerals are dehydrated deep in a subKilometers Mantle 0 50 duction zone (figure 15.20). The water pro(asthenosphere) duced moves upward into the overlying asthenosphere and contributes to melting FIGURE 15.20 and magma generation, as described in Water at a convergent boundary. Seawater trapped in the oceanic crust is carried downward and released upon chapter 11. heating at various depths within the subduction zone.

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FIGURE 15.21 “Black smoker” or submarine hot spring on the crest of the mid-oceanic ridge in the Pacific Ocean near 21° North Latitude. The “smoke” is a hot plume of metallic sulfide minerals being discharged into cold seawater from a chimney 0.5 meters high. The large mounds around the chimney are metal deposits. The instruments in the foreground are attached to the small submersible from which the picture was taken. Photo by W. R. Normak, USGS, East Pacific Rise Expedition, Scripps Institution of Oceanography

sulfide, they are usually small and widely scattered on the sea floor, so commercial mining of them may not be practical.

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replace preexisting ones as water simultaneously dissolves and replaces ions. When metasomatism takes place during regional metamorphism, very hot water travels through a rock while gneiss or schist is crystallizing. Ions (typically K⫹, Na⫹, and SiO4⫺4) are carried by the water and participate in metamorphic reactions. Large feldspar crystals may grow in schist due to the addition of potassium or sodium ions. If metasomatism is associated with contact metamorphism, the ions are introduced from a cooling magma. Some important commercially mined deposits of metals such as iron, tungsten, copper, lead, zinc, and silver are attributed to metasomatism. Figure 15.22 shows how magnetite (iron oxide) ore bodies have formed through metasomatism. Ions of the metal are transported by water and react with minerals in the host rock. Elements within the host rock are simultaneously dissolved out of the host rock and replaced by the metal ions brought in by the

Zone of contact metamorphism (aureole) Limestone

Marble

Magma

Water at Convergent Boundaries Water that percolates from the surface into the ground becomes ground water. Ground water seeps downward through pores and fractures in rocks. However, the depth to which surfacederived water can penetrate is quite limited. Plate tectonics can account for water at deeper levels in the lithosphere as seawater trapped in the oceanic crust can be carried to depths of up to 100 kilometers through subduction (figure 15.20). Water trapped in sediment and in sedimentary rocks lying on basalt may be carried down with the descending crust. It is driven out by pressure at depths up to around 30 kilometers. However, studies indicate that most of the water is carried by hydrous minerals (amphibole, for example) in the basaltic crust. When the rocks get hot enough, the hydrous minerals recrystallize, releasing water. The water vapor works its way upward through the overlying continental lithosphere through fissures. In the process of ascending, water assists in the metamorphism of rocks, dissolves minerals, and carries the ions to interact during metasomatism, or it deposits quartz and other minerals in fissures as veins. The water can also lower the melting points of rocks at depth, allowing magma to form (as described in chapter 11 on igneous rocks).

Metasomatism Metasomatism is metamorphism coupled with the introduction of ions from an external source. The ions are brought in by water from outside the immediate environment and are incorporated into the newly crystallizing minerals. Often, metasomatism involves ion exchange. Newly crystallizing minerals

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A Water with Ca+2 (CO3)–2

Magnetite

Water carrying iron

B

FIGURE 15.22 Development of a contact metasomatic deposit of iron (magnetite). (A) Magma intrudes country rock (limestone), and marble forms along contact. (B) As magma solidifies, gases bearing ions of iron leave the magma, dissolve some of the marble, and deposit iron as magnetite.

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CHAPTER 15

Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks

fluid. Because of the solubility of calcite, marble commonly serves as a host for metasomatic ore deposits.

Hydrothermal Rocks and Minerals Quartz veins (figure 15.23) are especially common where igneous activity has occurred. These can form from hot water given off by a cooling magma. They also are produced by ground water heated by a pluton and circulated by convection, as shown in figure 15.24. Where the water is hottest, rock in contact with it is partially dissolved. As the hot water travels upward toward Earth’s surface, temperature and pressure decrease. Fewer ions can be carried in solution so minerals will precipitate on to the walls of the cracks. Most commonly, silica (SiO2) dissolves in the very hot water, then will cake on the walls of cracks to form quartz veins. Veins consisting only of quartz are the most widespread, although some quartz veins contain other minerals. Veins with no quartz are not as common and are composed of calcite or some other minerals. Hydrothermal veins are very important economically. In them, we find most of the world’s great deposits of zinc, lead, silver, gold, tungsten, tin, mercury, and, to some extent, copper (see figure 15.23). Ore minerals containing these metals are usually found in quartz veins. Veins containing commercially extractable amounts of metals are by no means common. Some ore-bearing solutions percolate upward between the grains of the rock and deposit very fine grains of ore mineral throughout. These are called disseminated ore deposits. Usually, metallic sulfide ore minerals are distributed in very low concentration through large volumes of rock, both above and

FIGURE 15.23 A wide vein that contains masses of sphalerite (dark), pyrite and chalcopyrite (both shiny yellow), as well as white quartz, in the Casapalca mine in Peru. It was mined for zinc and copper. Photo © Brian Skinner

within a pluton. The ore in the pluton is in the upper part, which solidified earliest. As crystallization continued in the underlying magma, hydrothermal solutions were given off, and ore minerals crystallized in the tiny fractures and between grains in the overlying rock. Most of the world’s copper comes from disseminated deposits, also called porphyry copper deposits, because the associated pluton is usually porphyritic (see box 15.4). Other metals, such as lead, zinc, molybdenum, silver, and gold (and iron, though not in commercial quantities) may be deposited along with copper. Some very large gold mines are also in disseminated ore deposits.

Hot springs Vein material deposits in fractures as water ascends

Cold water descending along fractures in rock

COOL ROCK Several kilometers

COOL ROCK

Hot water ascends Water vapor from solidifying magma

HOT ROCK

Magma

FIGURE 15.24 How veins form. Cold water descends, is heated, dissolves material, ascends, and deposits material as water cools and pressure drops upon ascending.

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E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 1 5 . 4

The World’s Largest Human-made Hole— The Bingham Canyon Copper Mine

T

he Bingham Canyon mine near Salt Lake City, Utah, is thought to be the biggest single humanmade hole in the world (box figure 1). (The Morenci mine in Arizona is volumetrically larger, but is not a single pit.) The 800-meter ( 1⁄2-mile) deep open pit mine is 4 kilometers (21⁄2 miles) wide at the top and continues to be enlarged. The reason for this hole is copper. About 40,000 kilograms of explosives are used per day to blast apart over 60,000 tons of ore (copper-bearing rock) and an equal amount of waste rock. An 8-kilometer-long conveyor belt system moves up to 10,000 tons of crushed rock per hour through a tunnel out of the pit for processing. Mining began here as a typical underground operation in 1863. The shafts and tunnels of the mine followed a series of veins. Originally, ores of silver and lead were mined. Later, it was discovered that fine-grained, copper-bearing minerals (chalcopyrite and other copper sulfide minerals) were disseminated in tiny veinlets throughout a granite stock. Although the percentage of copper in the rock was small, the total volume of copper was recognized as huge. With efficient earth-moving techniques, large volumes of ore-bearing rock can be moved and processed. Today, mining is still going on, and the company is able to make a profit even though only 0.6% of the rock being mined is copper. Since 1904,over 12 million tons of copper have been mined, processed, and sold. The mine has also produced impressive amounts of gold, silver, and molybdenum. Such an operation is not without environmental problems. Some people regard the huge hole in the mountains as an eyesore (but it is a popular tourist attraction). Disposing of the waste—over 99% of the rock material mined—creates problems. Wind stirs up dust storms from the piles of finely crushed waste rock unless it is kept wet. The nearby smelter that extracts the pure copper from the sulfide minerals has created a toxic smoke containing sulfuric acid fumes. During most of the twentieth century, the toxic smoke was released into the atmosphere; occasionally, wind blew polluted air to Salt Lake City. Now, over 99% of the sulfur fumes are removed at the smelter.

Additional Resource Bingham Canyon Mine Site •

BOX 15.4 ■ FIGURE 1 Bingham Canyon copper mine in Utah. Photo courtesy of Kennecott Copper Company

www.infomine.com/minesite/minesite.asp?site= bingham

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CHAPTER 15

Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks

Summary Metamorphic rocks form from other rocks that are subjected to high temperature, generally accompanied by high confining pressure. Although recrystallization takes place in the solid state, water, which is usually present, aids metamorphic reactions. Foliation in metamorphic rocks is due to differential stress (either compressive stress or shearing). Slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss are foliated rocks that indicate increasing grade of regional metamorphism. They are distinguished from one another by the type of foliation. Contact metamorphic rocks are produced during metamorphism usually without significant differential stress but with high temperature. Contact metamorphism occurs in rocks immediately adjacent to intruded magmas. Regional metamorphism, which involves heat, confining pressure, and differential stress, has created most of the metamorphic rock of Earth’s crust. Different parent rocks as well as widely varying combinations of pressure and temperature result in a large variety of metamorphic rocks. Combinations of minerals in a rock can indicate what the pressure and temperature conditions were during metamorphism. Extreme metamorphism, where the rock partially melts, can result in migmatites. Hydrothermal veins form when hot water precipitates material that crystallizes into minerals. During metasomatism, hot water introduces ions into a rock being metamorphosed, changing the chemical composition of the metasomatized rock from that of the parent rock. Plate-tectonic theory accounts for the features observed in metamorphic rocks and relates their development to other activities in Earth. In particular, plate tectonics explains (1) the deep burial of rocks originally formed at or near Earth’s surface; (2) the intense squeezing necessary for the differential stress, implied by foliated rocks; (3) the presence of water deep within the lithosphere; and (4) the wide variety of pressures and temperatures believed to be present during metamorphism.

Terms to Remember compressive stress 388 confining pressure 387 contact metamorphism 393

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differential stress 387 ductile (plastic) 385 foliation 388

parent rock 385 phyllite 392 quartzite 391 regional metamorphism 393 schist 392 shearing 388 slate 392 stress 387 vein 399

gneiss 392 hornfels 391 hydrothermal rock 399 isotherm 398 marble 389 metamorphic rock 384 metamorphism 384 metasomatism 401 migmatite 396

Testing Your Knowledge Use the following questions to prepare for exams based on this chapter. 1. What are the effects on metamorphic minerals and textures of temperature, confining pressure, and differential stress? 2. What are the various sources of heat for metamorphism? 3. How do regional metamorphic rocks commonly differ in texture from contact metamorphic rocks? 4. Why is such a variety of combinations of pressure and temperature environments possible during metamorphism? 5. How would you distinguish a. schist and gneiss?

b. slate and phyllite?

c. quartzite and marble?

d. granite and gneiss?

6. Why is an edifice built with blocks of quartzite more durable than one built of marble blocks? 7. Which is not regarded as a low-grade metamorphic rock? a. greenschist

b. phyllite

c. slate

d. gneiss

8. Shearing is a type of a. compressive stress

b. confining pressure

c. lithostatic pressure

d. differential stress

9. Metamorphic rocks with a planar texture (the constituents of the rock are parallel to one another) are said to be a. concordant

b. foliated

c. discordant

d. nonfoliated

10. Metamorphic rocks are classified primarily on a. texture—the presence or absence of foliation b. mineralogy—the presence or absence of quartz c. environment of deposition d. chemical composition

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www.mhhe.com/carlson9e 11. Which is not a foliated metamorphic rock? a. gneiss

b. schist

c. quartzite

d. slate

12. Limestone recrystallizes during metamorphism into a. hornfels

b. marble

c. quartzite

d. schist

13. Quartz sandstone is changed during metamorphism into a. hornfels

b. marble

c. quartzite

d. schist

14. The correct sequence of rocks that are formed when shale undergoes prograde metamorphism is

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Expanding Your Knowledge 1. Should ultramafic rocks in the upper mantle be regarded as metamorphic rocks rather than igneous rocks? 2. Where were the metals before they were concentrated in hydrothermal vein ore deposits? 3. What happens to originally horizontal layers of sedimentary rock when they are subjected to the deformation associated with regional metamorphism? 4. Where in Earth’s crust would you expect most migmatites to form?

a. slate, gneiss, schist, phyllite b. phyllite, slate, schist, gneiss c. slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss d. schist, phyllite, slate, gneiss 15. The major difference between metamorphism and metasomatism is a. temperature at which each takes place b. the minerals involved c. the area or region involved d. metasomatism is metamorphism coupled with the introduction of ions from an external source 16. Ore bodies at divergent plate boundaries can be created through a. contact metamorphism b. regional metamorphism c. hydrothermal processes 17. A schist that developed in a high-pressure, low-temperature environment likely formed a. in the lower part of the continental crust

Exploring Web Resources www.mhhe.com/carlson9e McGraw-Hill’s website for Physical Geology: Earth Revealed 9th edition features a wide variety of study aids, such as animations, quizzes, answers to the end-of-chapter multiple choice questions, additional readings and Google Earth exercises, Internet exercises, and much more. The URLs listed in this book are given as links in chapter web pages, making it easy to go to a website without typing in its URL. www.geol.ucsb.edu/faculty/hacker/geo102C/lectures/part1.html University of California Santa Barbara’s Metamorphic Petrology website. This site is meant for a course on metamorphic rock. It is wellillustrated and can be used for in-depth learning of particular topics. www.geolab.unc.edu/Petunia/IgMetAtlas/mainmenu.html University of North Carolina’s Atlas of Rocks, Minerals, and Textures. Click on “Metamorphic microtextures.” Click on terms covered in this chapter (e.g., foliation, gneiss, phyllite, marble, quartzite, slate) to see excellent photomicrographs taken through a polarizing microscope.

b. in a subduction zone c. in a mid-oceanic ridge d. near a contact with a magma body 18. A metamorphic rock that has undergone partial melting to produce a mixed igneous-metamorphic rock is a

Animation

a. gneiss

b. hornfels

This chapter includes the following animation on the book’s website at www.mhhe.com/carlson9e.

c. schist

d. migmatite

15.24 Hydrothermal ore vein formation

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C

H

A

P

T

E

R

16 Streams and Floods Earth Systems—The Hydrologic Cycle Running Water Drainage Basins Drainage Patterns Factors Affecting Stream Erosion and Deposition Velocity Gradient Channel Shape and Roughness Discharge

Stream Erosion Stream Transportation of Sediment Stream Deposition Bars Braided Streams Meandering Streams and Point Bars Flood Plains Deltas Alluvial Fans

Stream Valley Development Downcutting and Base Level The Concept of a Graded Stream Lateral Erosion Headward Erosion Stream Terraces Incised Meanders

Flooding Urban Flooding Flash Floods Controlling Floods The Midwest Floods of 1993 and 2008

Summary

R

unning water, aided by mass wasting, is the most important geologic agent in eroding, transporting, and depositing sediment. Almost every landscape on Earth shows the results of stream erosion or deposition. Although other agents—ground water, glaciers, wind, and waves—can be locally important in sculpturing the land, stream action and mass wasting are the dominant processes of landscape development. Aerial view of flooded downtown Cedar Rapids, Iowa as the Cedar River crested at nearly 33 feet on June 13, 2008, 19 feet above flood level. Throughout the midwestern United States, 24 people were killed by the floods and an estimated 38,000 people were displaced. Photo © David Greedy/

Getty Images

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CHAPTER 16

Streams and Floods

We begin by examining the relationship of running water to other water in the Earth systems. The first part of this chapter also deals with the various ways that streams erode, transport, and deposit sediment. The second part describes landforms produced by stream action, such as

valleys, flood plains, deltas, and alluvial fans, and shows how each of these is related to changes in stream characteristics. The chapter also includes a discussion of the causes and effects of flooding, and various measures used to control flooding.

EARTH SYSTEMS—THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

sea. When air becomes saturated with water (100% relative humidity), rises, and cools in the atmosphere, liquid droplets condense to form clouds. These droplets grow larger as more water leaves the gaseous state to form rain or snow, depending on the temperature. When rain (or snow) falls on the land surface as precipitation, more than half the water returns rather rapidly to the atmosphere by evaporation or transpiration from plants. Some of the water is held as ice in glaciers and snow

The interrelationship of the hydrosphere, geosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere is easy to visualize through the hydrologic cycle, the movement and interchange of water between the sea, air, and land (figure 16.1). Solar radiation provides the necessary energy for evaporation of water vapor from the land and

Solar radiation

Precipitation

Transpiration Condensation

In fi lt ra ti on

Evaporation

Runof f i ns tre a

m Evaporation

Ground water (fresh water)

Sea Ground water (saltwater)

FIGURE 16.1 The hydrologic cycle. Water vapor evaporates from the land and sea, condenses to form clouds, and falls as precipitation (rain and snow). Water falling on land runs off over the surface as streams or infiltrates into the ground to become ground water. It returns to the atmosphere again by evaporation and transpiration (the loss of water to the air by plants). Visit http://observe.nasa.gov/nasa/earth/hydrocycle/hydro1.html

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streams somewhat smaller, and brooks or creeks even smaller. Geologists, however, use stream for any body of running water, from a small trickle to a huge river. Figure 16.2A shows a longitudinal profile of a typical stream viewed from the side. The stream begins in steep mountains and flows out across a gentle plain into the sea. The headwaters of a stream are the upper part of the stream near its source in the mountains. The mouth is the place where a stream enters the sea, a lake, or a larger stream. A cross section of a stream in steep mountains is usually a V-shaped valley cut into solid rock, with the stream channel occupying the narrow bottom of the valley; there is little or no flat land next to the stream on the valley bottom (figure 16.2B). Near its mouth a stream usually flows within a broad, flat-floored valley. The stream channel is surrounded by a flat flood plain of sediment deposited by the stream (figure 16.2C). A stream normally stays in its stream channel, a long, narrow depression eroded by the stream into rock or sediment. The stream banks are the sides of the channel; the streambed is the bottom of the channel. During a flood, the waters of a stream

pack. The remainder either flows over the land surface as runoff in streams, is held temporarily in lakes, or soaks into the ground by infiltration to form ground water. Ground water (the subject of chapter 17) moves, usually very slowly, underground and may flow back onto the surface a long distance from where it seeped into the ground. Most water eventually reaches the sea, where ongoing evaporation completes the cycle. Only about 15% to 20% of rainfall normally ends up as surface runoff in rivers, although the amount of runoff can range from 2% to more than 25% with variations in climate, steepness of slope, soil and rock type, and vegetation. Steady, continuous rains can saturate the ground and the atmosphere, however, and lead to floods as runoff approaches 100% of rainfall.

RUNNING WATER A stream is a body of running water that is confined in a channel and moves downhill under the influence of gravity. In some parts of the country, stream implies size: rivers are large,

B

409

Headwaters of stream

B′

Mouth of stream (delta) C′

Lo

A Longitudinal profile of a stream beginning in mountains and flowing across a plain into the sea.

Flood plain ng

itu

di

na

l p ro

Channel Flood plain

fil

e

C

Sea Valley wall

Rock B Cross section of the stream at B-B′. The channel is at the bottom of a V-shaped valley cut into rock.

C Cross section at C-C′. The channel is surrounded by a broad flood plain of sediment.

FIGURE 16.2 Longitudinal profile and cross sections of a typical stream.

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10 km A

10 km B

FIGURE 16.3 A stream normally stays in its channel, but during a flood it can spill over its banks onto the adjacent flatland (flood plain) as shown in these three-dimensional satellite images. (A) Before flooding image (August 14, 1991) of Missouri River (bottom), Mississippi River (upper left), and Illinois River (upper right). Vegetation is shown in green and red indicates recently plowed fields (bare soil). (B) Image taken on November 7 after the huge floods of 1993 showing how the rivers spilled over their banks onto the flat flood plains. Photos © NASA/GSFC/Photo Researchers

may rise and spill over the banks onto the flat flood plain of the valley floor (figure 16.3). Not all water that moves over the land surface is confined to channels. Sometimes, particularly during heavy rains, water runs off as sheetwash, a thin layer of unchanneled water flowing downhill. Sheetwash is particularly common in deserts, where the lack of vegetation allows rainwater to spread quickly over the land surface. It also occurs in humid regions during heavy thunderstorms when water falls faster than it can soak into the ground. A series of closely spaced storms can also promote sheetwash; as the ground becomes saturated, more water runs over the surface. Sheetwash, along with the violent impact of raindrops on the land surface, can produce considerable sheet erosion, in which a thin layer of surface material, usually topsoil, is removed by the flowing sheet of water. This gravity-driven movement of sediment is a process intermediate between mass wasting and stream erosion. Overland sheetwash becomes concentrated in small channels, forming tiny streams called rills. Rills merge to form small streams, and small streams join to form larger streams. Most regions are drained by networks of coalescing streams.

DRAINAGE BASINS Each stream, small or large, has a drainage basin, the total area drained by a stream and its tributaries (a tributary is a small stream flowing into a larger one). A drainage basin can be outlined on a map by drawing a line around the region drained by all the tributaries to a river (figure 16.4). The Mississippi River’s

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drainage basin, for example, includes all the land area drained by the Mississippi River itself and by all its tributaries, including the Ohio and Missouri Rivers. This great drainage system includes more than one-third the land area of the contiguous 48 states. A ridge or strip of high ground dividing one drainage basin from another is termed a divide (figure 16.4). The best known continental divide in the United States is the Great Divide, a line separating streams that flow to the Pacific Ocean from those that flow to the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. The Great Divide, which extends from the Yukon Territory down into Mexico, crosses Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico in the United States. Road signs indicating the crossing of the Great Divide have been placed at numerous points where major highways intersect the divide.

DRAINAGE PATTERNS The arrangement, in map view, of a river and its tributaries is a drainage pattern. A drainage pattern can, in many cases, reveal the nature and structure of the rocks underneath it. Most tributaries join the main stream at an acute angle, forming a V (or Y) pointing downstream. If the pattern resembles branches of a tree or nerve dendrites, it is called dendritic (figures 16.4 and 16.5A). Dendritic drainage patterns develop on uniformly erodible rock or regolith and are the most common type of pattern. A radial pattern, in which streams diverge outward like spokes of a wheel, forms on high conical mountains, such as composite volcanoes and domes (figure 16.5B). A rectangular pattern, in which tributaries have frequent 90° bends and tend to join other streams at right angles, develops

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Mississippi River

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Drainage basin of the Mississippi River

Great divide Missouri River

Ohio River

Continental divide

FIGURE 16.4 The drainage basin of the Mississippi River is the land area drained by the river and all its tributaries, including the Ohio and Missouri Rivers; it covers more than 1.6 million square kilometers. Heavy rain in any part of the basin can cause flooding on the lower Mississippi River in the states of Mississippi and Louisiana. The Great Divide separates rivers that flow into the Pacific from rivers that flow into the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. For more detail, go to http://www.nationalatlas.gov/articles/geology/a_continentalDiv.html

on regularly fractured rock (figure 16.5C). A network of fractures meeting at right angles forms pathways for streams because fractures are eroded more easily than unbroken rock. A trellis pattern consists of parallel main streams with short tributaries meeting them at right angles (figure 16.5D). A trellis pattern forms in a region where tilted layers of resistant rock such as sandstone alternate with nonresistant rock such as shale. Erosion of such a region results in a surface topography of parallel ridges and valleys.

FACTORS AFFECTING STREAM EROSION AND DEPOSITION Stream erosion and deposition are controlled primarily by a river’s velocity and, to a lesser extent, its discharge. Velocity is

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largely controlled by the stream gradient, channel shape, and channel roughness.

Velocity The distance water travels in a stream per unit time is called the stream velocity. A moderately fast river flows at about 5 kilometers per hour (3 miles per hour). Rivers flow much faster during flood, sometimes exceeding 25 kilometers per hour (15 miles per hour). The cross-sectional views of a stream in figure 16.6 show that a stream reaches its maximum velocity near the middle of the channel. When a stream goes around a curve, the region of maximum velocity is displaced by inertia toward the outside of the curve. Velocity is the key factor in a stream’s ability to erode, transport, and deposit. High velocity (meaning greater energy) generally results in erosion and transportation; low

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velocity causes sediment deposition. Slight changes in velocity can cause great changes in the sediment load carried by the river. Figure 16.7 shows the stream velocities at which sediments are eroded, transported, and deposited. For each grain size, these velocities are different. The upper curve represents the mini-

A Dendritic

B Radial

mum velocity needed to erode sediment grains. This curve shows the velocity at which previously stationary grains are first picked up by moving water. The lower curve represents the velocity below which deposition occurs, when moving grains come to rest. Between the two curves, the water is moving fast enough to transport grains that have already been eroded. Note that it takes a higher stream velocity to erode grains (set them in motion) than to transport grains (keep them in motion). Point A on figure 16.7 represents fine sand on the bed of a stream that is barely moving. The vertical red arrows represent a flood with gradually increasing stream velocity. No sediment moves until the velocity is high enough to intersect the upper curve and move into the area marked “erosion.” As the flood recedes, the velocity drops below the upper curve and into the transportation area. Under these conditions, the sand that was already eroded continues to be transported, but no new sand is eroded. As the velocity falls below the lower curve, all the sand is deposited again, coming to rest on the streambed. The right half of the diagram shows that coarser particles require progressively higher velocities for erosion and transportation, as you might expect (boulders are harder to move than sand grains). The erosion curve also rises toward the left of the diagram, however. This shows that fine-grained silt and clay are actually harder to erode than sand. The reason is that molecular forces tend to bind silt and clay into a smooth, cohesive mass that resists erosion. Once silt and clay are eroded, however, they are easily transported. As you can see from the lower curve, the silt and clay in a river’s suspended load are not deposited until the river virtually stops flowing.

A

A′

Maximum velocity Maximum velocity A B

Fractures

C Rectangular Ridge

A′ B

B′

Valley B′ C

C′ C

C′

D Trellis

FIGURE 16.5 Drainage patterns can reveal something about the rocks underneath. (A) Dendritic pattern develops on uniformly erodible rock. (B) A radial pattern develops on a conical mountain or dome. (C) A rectangular pattern develops on regularly fractured rock. (D) A trellis pattern develops on alternating ridges and valleys caused by the erosion of resistant and nonresistant tilted rock layers.

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Map view

Cross sections

FIGURE 16.6 Regions of maximum velocity in a stream. Arrows on the map show how the maximum velocity shifts to the outside of curves. Sections show maximum velocity on outside of curves and in the center of the channel on a straight stretch of stream.

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Gradient One factor that controls a stream’s velocity is the stream gradient, the downhill slope of the bed (or of the water surface, if the stream is very large). A stream gradient is usually measured in feet per mile in the United States, because these units are used on U.S. maps (elsewhere, gradients are expressed in meters per kilometer). A gradient of 5 feet per mile means that the river drops 5 feet vertically for every mile that it travels horizontally. Mountain streams may have gradients as steep as 50 to 200 feet per mile (10 to 40 meters per kilometer). The lower Mississippi River has a very gentle gradient, 0.5 foot per mile (0.1 meter per kilometer) or less. A stream’s gradient usually decreases downstream. Typically, the gradient is greatest in the headwater region and decreases toward the mouth of the stream (see figure 16.2). Local increases in the gradient of a stream are usually marked by rapids.

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The width of a stream may be controlled by factors external to the stream. A landslide may carry debris onto a valley floor, partially blocking a stream’s channel (figure 16.9B). The constriction causes the stream to speed up as it flows past the slide, and the increased velocity may quickly erode the landslide debris, carrying it away downstream. Human interference with a river can promote erosion and deposition. Construction of a culvert or bridge can partially block a channel, increasing the stream’s velocity (figure 16.9C). If the bridge was poorly designed, it may increase velocity to the point where erosion may cause the bridge to collapse. The roughness of the channel also controls velocity. A stream can flow rapidly over a smooth channel, but a rough, boulder-strewn channel floor creates more friction and slows the flow (see figure 16.8C). Coarse particles increase the roughness more than fine particles, and a rippled or wavy sand bottom is rougher than a smooth sand bottom.

Discharge

Channel Shape and Roughness The shape of the channel also controls stream velocity. Flowing water drags against the stream banks and bed, and the resulting friction slows the water down. In figure 16.8, the streams in A and B have the same cross-sectional area, but stream B flows slower than A because the wide, shallow channel in B has more surface for the moving water to drag against. A stream may change its channel width as it flows across different rock types. Hard, resistant rock is difficult to erode, so a stream may have a relatively narrow channel in such rock. As a result, it flows rapidly (figure 16.9A). If the stream flows onto a softer rock that is easier to erode, the channel may widen, and the river will slow down because of the increased surface area dragging on the flowing water. Sediment may be deposited as the velocity decreases.

The discharge of a stream is the volume of water that flows past a given point in a unit of time. It is found by multiplying the cross-sectional area of a stream by its velocity (or width depth velocity). Discharge can be reported in cubic feet per second (cfs), which is standard in the United States, or in cubic meters per second (m3/sec). Discharge (cfs) average stream width (ft) average depth (ft) average velocity (ft/sec) A stream 100 feet wide and 15 feet deep flowing at 4 miles per hour (6 ft/sec) has a discharge of 9,000 cubic feet per second (cfs).

1,000 Erosion of sediment

100 Stream velocity (cm/sec)

10

Transportation of sediment

Deposition of sediment

1

0.1

A

B

A Clay (Fine)

Silt

Sand Grain size

Gravel (Coarse)

C

FIGURE 16.7

FIGURE 16.8

Logarithmic graph showing the stream velocities at which erosion and deposition of sediment occur. These velocities vary with the grain size of the sediment. See text for a discussion of point A and the dashed red line above it.

Channel shape and roughness influence stream velocity. (A) Semicircular channel allows stream to flow rapidly. (B) Wide, shallow channel increases friction, slowing river down. (C) Rough, boulder-strewn channel slows river.

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CHAPTER 16 Hard rock

Streams and Floods

Narrow channel, rapid flow

Soft rock Deposition

A

B

FIGURE 16.10 These large boulders of granite in a mountain stream are moved only during floods. Note the rounding of the boulders and the scoured high-water mark of floods on the valley walls. Note people for scale. Photo by David McGeary

C

FIGURE 16.9 Channel width variations caused by rock type and obstructions. Length of arrow indicates velocity. (A) A channel may widen in soft rock. Deposition may result as stream velocity drops. (B) Landslide may narrow a channel, increasing stream velocity. Resulting erosion usually removes landslide debris. (C) Bridge piers (or other obstructions) will increase velocity and sometimes erosion next to the piers.

In streams in humid climates, discharge increases downstream for two reasons: (1) water flows out of the ground into the river through the streambed; and (2) small tributary streams flow into a larger stream along its length, adding water to the stream as it travels. To handle the increased discharge, these streams increase in width and depth downstream. Some streams surprisingly increase slightly in velocity downstream, as a result of the increased discharge (the increase in discharge and channel size,

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and the typical downstream smoothness of the channel override the effect of a lessening gradient). During floods, a stream’s discharge and velocity increase, usually as a result of heavy rains over the stream’s drainage basin. Flood discharge may be 50 to 100 times normal flow. Stream erosion and transportation generally increase enormously as a result of a flood’s velocity and discharge. Swift mountain streams in flood can sometimes move boulders the size of automobiles (figure 16.10). Flooded areas may be intensely scoured, with river banks and adjacent lawns and fields washed away. As floodwaters recede, both velocity and discharge decrease, leading to the deposition of a blanket of sediment, usually mud, over the flooded area. In a dry climate, a river’s discharge can decrease in a downstream direction as river water evaporates into the air and soaks into the dry ground (or is used for irrigation). As the discharge decreases, the load of sediment is gradually deposited.

STREAM EROSION A stream usually erodes the rock and sediment over which it flows. In fact, streams are one of the most effective sculptors of

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Air Water Eddy lifts grain

Rock Fractures

FIGURE 16.11 Hydraulic action can loosen, roll, and lift grains from the streambed.

the land. Streams cut their own valleys, deepening and widening them over long periods of time and carrying away the sediment that mass wasting delivers to valley floors. The particles of rock and sediment that a stream picks up are carried along to be deposited farther downstream. Streams erode rock and sediment in three ways—hydraulic action, solution, and abrasion. Hydraulic action refers to the ability of flowing water to pick up and move rock and sediment (figure 16.11). The force of running water swirling into a crevice in a rock can crack the rock and break loose a fragment to be carried away by the stream. Hydraulic force can also erode loose material from a stream bank on the outside of a curve. The pressure of flowing water can roll or slide grains over a streambed, and a swirling eddy of water may exert enough force to lift a rock fragment above a streambed. The great force of falling water makes hydraulic action particularly effective at the base of a waterfall, where it may erode a deep plunge pool. You may be able to hear the results of hydraulic action by standing beside a swift mountain stream and listening to boulders and cobbles hitting one another as they tumble along downstream. From what you have learned about weathering, you know that some rocks can be dissolved by water. Solution, although ordinarily slow, can be an effective process of weathering and erosion (weathering because it is a response to surface chemical conditions; erosion because it removes material). A stream flowing over limestone, for example, gradually dissolves the rock, deepening the stream channel. A stream flowing over other sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone, can dissolve calcite cement, loosening grains that can then be picked up by hydraulic action. The erosive process that is usually most effective on a rocky streambed is abrasion, the grinding away of the stream channel by the friction and impact of the sediment load. Sand and gravel tumbling along near the bottom of a stream wear away the streambed much as moving sandpaper wears away wood. The abrasion of sediment on the streambed is generally much more effective in wearing away the rock than hydraulic action alone. The more sediment a stream carries, the faster it is likely to wear away its bed. The coarsest sediment is the most effective in stream erosion. Sand and gravel strike the streambed frequently and with great force, while the finer-grained silt and clay particles weigh so little that they are easily suspended throughout the stream and have little impact when they hit the channel.

FIGURE 16.12 Potholes scoured along bed of McDonald River in Glacier National Park, Montana. Photo © Joe McDonald/Visuals Unlimited

Potholes are depressions that are eroded into the hard rock of a streambed by the abrasive action of the sediment load (figure 16.12). During high water when a stream is full, the swirling water can cause sand and pebbles to scour out smooth, bowl-shaped depressions in hard rock. Potholes tend to form in spots where the rock is a little weaker than the surrounding rock. Although potholes are fairly uncommon, you can see them on the beds of some streams at low water level. Potholes may contain sand or an assortment of beautifully rounded pebbles.

STREAM TRANSPORTATION OF SEDIMENT The sediment load transported by a stream can be subdivided into bed load, suspended load, and dissolved load. Most of a stream’s load is carried in suspension and in solution. The bed load is the large or heavy sediment particles that travel on the streambed (figure 16.13). Sand and gravel, which form the usual bed load of streams, move by either traction or saltation. 415

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CHAPTER 16

Streams and Floods

Flow

Silt and clay suspended by turbulence Dissolved lo

ad

Silt and clay

Suspended load

Rolling Sand moving by saltation

Sliding

Sand Bed load Gravel Rock

FIGURE 16.13 A stream’s bed load consists of sand and gravel moving on or near the streambed by traction and saltation. Finer silt and clay form the suspended load of the stream. The dissolved load of soluble ions is invisible.

Large, heavy particles of sediment, such as cobbles and boulders, may never lose contact with the streambed as they move along in the flowing water. They roll or slide along the stream bottom, eroding the streambed and each other by abrasion. Movement by rolling, sliding, or dragging is called traction. Sand grains move by traction, but they also move downstream by saltation, a series of short leaps or bounces off the bottom (see figure 16.13). Saltation begins when sand grains are momentarily lifted off the bottom by turbulent water (eddying, swirling flow). The force of the turbulence temporarily counteracts the downward force of gravity, suspending the grains in water above the streambed. The water soon slows down because the velocity of water in an eddy is not constant; then gravity overcomes the lift of the water, and the sand grain once again falls to the bed of the stream. While it is suspended, the grain moves downstream with the flowing water. After it lands on the bottom, it may be picked up again if turbulence increases, or it may be thrown up into the water by the impact of another falling sand grain. In this way, sand grains saltate downstream in leaps and jumps, partly in contact with the bottom and partly suspended in the water. The suspended load is sediment that is light enough to remain lifted indefinitely above the bottom by water turbulence (see figure 16.13). The muddy appearance of a stream during a flood or after a heavy rain is due to a large suspended load. Silt and clay usually are suspended throughout the water, while the coarser bed load moves on the stream bottom. Suspended load has less effect on erosion than the less visible bed load, which causes most of the abrasion of the streambed. Vast quantities of sediment, however, are transported in suspension.

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FIGURE 16.14 Sand and gravel bars deposited along the banks and middle of a stream. Green River at Horseshoe Bend, Utah. Photo © Michael Collier

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Bar

near the end of a stream, sediments may be deposited more permanently in a delta or an alluvial fan.

Bars A

B New bars

C

FIGURE 16.15 A flood can wash away bars in a stream, depositing new bars as the water recedes. (A) Normal water flow with sand and gravel bar. (B) Increased discharge and velocity during flood moves all sediment downstream. Channel deepens and widens if banks erode easily. (C) New bars are deposited as water level drops and stream slows down.

Soluble products of chemical weathering processes can make up a substantial dissolved load in a stream. Most streams contain numerous ions in solution, such as bicarbonate, calcium, potassium, sodium, chloride, and sulfate. The ions may precipitate out of water as evaporite minerals if the stream dries up, or they may eventually reach the ocean. Very clear water may in fact be carrying a large load of material in solution, for the dissolved load is invisible. Only if the water evaporates does the material become visible as crystals begin to form. One estimate is that rivers in the United States carry about 250 million tons of solid load and 300 million tons of dissolved load each year. (It would take a freight train eight times as long as the distance from Boston to Los Angeles to carry 250 million tons.)

Stream deposits may take the form of a bar, a ridge of sediment, usually sand and gravel, deposited in the middle or along the banks of a stream (figure 16.14). Bars are formed by deposition when a stream’s discharge or velocity decreases. During a flood, a river can move all sizes of sediment, from silt and clay up to huge boulders, because the greatly increased volume of water is moving very rapidly. As the flood begins to recede, the water level in the stream falls and the velocity drops. With the stream no longer able to carry all its sediment load, the larger boulders drop down on the streambed, slowing the water locally even more. Finer gravel and sand are deposited between the boulders and downstream from them. In this way, deposition builds up a sand and gravel bar that may become exposed as the water level falls. The next flood on the river may erode most of the sediment in this bar and move it farther downstream. But as the flood slows, it may deposit new gravel in approximately the same place, forming a new bar (figure 16.15). After each flood, river anglers and boat operators must relearn the size and position of the bars. Sometimes gold panners discover fresh gold in a mined-out river bar after a flood has shifted sediment downstream. A dramatic example of the shifting of sandbars occurred during the planned flood on the Colorado River downstream from the Glen Canyon Dam (box 16.1).

Placer Deposits Placer deposits are found in streams where the running water has mechanically concentrated heavy sediment. The heavy sediment is concentrated in the stream where the velocity of the water is high enough to carry away lighter material but not the heavy sediment. Such places include river bars on the inside of meanders, plunge pools below waterfalls, and depressions on a streambed (figure 16.16). Grains concentrated in this manner include gold dust and nuggets, native platinum, diamonds and other gemstones, and worn pebble or sand grains composed of the heavy oxides of titanium and tin.

STREAM DEPOSITION The sediments transported by a stream are often deposited temporarily along the stream’s course (particularly the bed load sediments). Such sediments move sporadically downstream in repeated cycles of erosion and deposition, forming bars and flood-plain deposits. At or

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A Map view

B Side view

C Side view

FIGURE 16.16 Types of placer deposits. (A) Stream bar. (B) Below waterfall. (C) Depressions on streambed. Valuable grains shown in black.

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CHAPTER 16

Streams and Floods

E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 1 6 . 1

Controlled Floods in the Grand Canyon: Bold Experiments to Restore Sediment Movement in the Colorado River conditions were now set for another attempt to simulate what happens to sediment during flood-level discharges on a river. This time, the bars and beaches were again temporarily restored, but eroded quickly. The rapid erosion was due to an inadequate amount of sediment flushed downstream, and to the daily variation of flows from the Glen Canyon Dam necessary to satisfy hydroelectricity needs. The immediate results from the March 2008 attempt to rebuild the sandbars and beaches were encouraging but are still being analyzed to determine just how long the bars and beaches will last. Downstream at Lava Falls, another experiment was set up to determine how and if large boulders deposited in the main channel from a debris flow would move with the increased discharge and velocity of the floodwater. Holes were drilled into 150 basalt boulders and radio tags were inserted (box figure 3) so their movement could be monitored and correlated with the increase in discharge and velocity of the river. Surface velocity measurements were taken by kayaking the river and charting the speed at which floating balls moved. The surface velocities were used to calculate the velocity of the water close to the riverbed where the boulders were positioned. Dye was also injected into the river at peak flows to determine the average velocity of the water. The dye indicated that the velocity of the water increased downstream, particularly at the Lava Falls debris flow. This is because the floodwater accelerated as it flowed downstream, pushing the river water in front of it, which increased the downstream velocity. The first crest of water actually arrived behind Hoover Dam at Lake Mead a day ahead of the floodwater marked with a red dye.

Utah Arizona

113°

River

Grand Canyon National Park

Page

Littl e

v er o Ri Colorad

oR

iv e

er

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Lake Powell

National Canyon

Flagstaff

r

Phoenix

Location map of the Grand Canyon controlled flood experiments. U.S. Geological Survey

111°

Lee’s Ferry

Lava Falls

do ra lo

112°

Flagstaff

35°

BOX 16.1 ■ FIGURE 1

Glen Canyon Dam

Paria River

or a d Col

C olorado Riv

n 1996, and most recently on March 6, 2008, the largest experiments ever conducted on a river took place along the Colorado River below the Glen Canyon Dam (box figure 1). The discharge from the Glen Canyon Dam was dramatically increased to simulate the effects of a flood on the Colorado River. One of the main goals of the controlled flooding experiment was to determine whether the higher flows would result in bed scour and redeposition of sandbars and beaches along the sides of the channel (box figure 2). Another goal was to measure and observe how rocks move along the bed of the river bed with increasing discharge and velocity of floodwaters. The Colorado River had not experienced its usual summertime floods since the Glen Canyon Dam was completed in 1963. The construction of the dam decreased peak discharges or flows on the Colorado River, which resulted in sand being deposited mainly along the bed or bottom of the river and erosion of beaches along the banks of the river. The Glen Canyon Dam cuts off a significant percentage of the sand supply to the lower Colorado River such that most of the downstream sand is supplied by two tributary streams, the Paria and Little Colorado Rivers. In August 1992, the Paria River flooded and deposited 330,000 tons of sand into the Colorado River, and in January 1993, a flood on the Little Colorado River deposited 10 million tons of sediment below its confluence with the Colorado River. The influx of sediment, coupled with the relatively low discharges from the dam, resulted in sand being concentrated along the bed of the Colorado River. The first controlled flood experiment, conducted in 1996, resulted in sand initially being scoured from the bottom of the main channel and redeposited as bars and beaches. However, after three days of the higher flows the bars and beaches began to erode and sediment was once again deposited along the bottom of the river. Scientists had overestimated the amount 37° of sand along the bottom of the Colorado River and the length of time necessary to redeposit it along the river banks. After analyzing the data and results of the first flooding experiment, a second controlled Lake flood was undertaken in 2004. In the second conMead trolled flood, scientists waited for an adequate supply of sediment in the Colorado River from the tributary streams and shortened the length of time 36° of higher flows. In the fall of 2004, tropical storms Hoover Dam swept a million tons of sediment (only a tenth of what the undammed Colorado once carried ) down the Paria River into the Colorado River. The

Co

I

Tucson

50 miles 50 kilometers

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Glen Canyon Dam

A Before flood

Sand on river bottom

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The experimental floods, even though smaller than a naturally occurring flood, showed that beaches could be temporarily restored below a dam and that boulders could be moved out of rapids much like that which occurs on an undammed river during a seasonal flood. However, in order to maintain the beaches, controlled releases from the Glen Canyon Dam may need to occur every few years. It is proposed that other dammed rivers would benefit from periodic floods to help restore their natural conditions and thus minimize the adverse effects of damming a river.

Additional Resources Flooding in Grand Canyon. Scientific American, January 1997, pp. 82–89. Sand suspended and moved by back eddies to river banks

B During flood

The Grand (Canyon) Experiment. Science, December 10, 2004, pp. 1884–1886. R. H. Webb, J. C. Schmidt, G. R. Marzolf, and R. A. Valdez, eds. 1999. The Controlled Flood in Grand Canyon. Geophysical Monograph Series 110. http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/grandcan/flood.html

Sand beaches restored on river banks

C After flood

BOX 16.1 ■ FIGURE 2 Cross-sectional views of the distribution of sand before (A), during (B), and after (C) controlled floods on the Colorado River below Canyon Dam. After U.S. Geological Survey

For an overview and details of the specific experiments conducted during the planned flood. http://www.gcmrc.gov/research/high_flow/2008/

Information, photos, and videos of the March 6, 2008 controlled flood experiment.

A

BOX 16.1 ■ FIGURE 3

B

(A) Hole being drilled into a basalt boulder and (B) radio tag installed to track the movement of boulders as the discharge and velocity of the Colorado River increase at the Lava Falls debris flow locality. Photos courtesy of KUAT-TV, University of Arizona, Dan Duncan

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CHAPTER 16

A

Streams and Floods

B

FIGURE 16.17

C

(A) A midchannel bar can divert a stream around it, widening the stream. (B) Braided stream occurs where there is an excess of sediment. Bars split main channel into many smaller channels, greatly widening the stream. (C) International space station view of a braided stream carrying a heavy suspended load of sand and gravel from melting glaciers, Brahmaputra, Tibet. Photo courtesy of Earth and Sciences Image Analysis Laboratory, NASA Johnson Space Center

Braided Streams Deposition of a bar in the center of a stream (a midchannel bar) diverts the water toward the sides, where it washes against the stream banks with greater force, eroding the banks and widening the stream (figure 16.17A). A stream heavily loaded with sediment may deposit many bars in its channel, causing the stream to widen continually as more bars are deposited. Such a stream typically goes through many stages of deposition, erosion, deposition, and erosion, especially if its discharge fluctuates. The stream may fill its main channel with sediment and become a braided stream, flowing in a network of interconnected rivulets around numerous bars (figure 16.17B and C). A braided stream characteristically has a wide, shallow channel. A stream tends to become braided when it is heavily loaded with sediment (particularly bed load) and has banks that are easily eroded. The braided pattern develops in deserts as a sediment-laden stream loses water through evaporation and percolation into the ground. In meltwater streams flowing off glaciers, braided patterns tend to develop when the discharge from the melting glaciers is low relative to the great amount and ranges of size of sediment the stream has to carry.

Meandering Streams and Point Bars Rivers that carry fine-grained silt and clay in suspension tend to be narrow and deep and to develop pronounced, sinuous curves called meanders (figure 16.18). In a long river, sediment tends to become finer downstream, so meandering is common in the lower reaches of a river. You have seen in figure 16.6 that a river’s velocity is higher on the outside of a curve than on the inside. This high velocity

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FIGURE 16.18 Meanders in a stream. These sinuous curves develop because a stream’s velocity is highest on the outside of curves, promoting erosion there. Photo © Glenn M. Oliver/ Visuals Unlimited

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can erode the river bank on the outside of a curve, often rapidly (figure 16.19). The low velocity on the inside of a curve promotes sediment deposition. The sandbars in figure 16.20 have been deposited on the inside of curves because of the lower velocity there. Such a bar is called a point bar and usually consists of a series of arcuate ridges of sand or gravel. The simultaneous erosion on the outside of a curve and deposition on the inside can deepen a gentle curve into a hairpin-like meander (see figure 16.20). Meanders are rarely fixed in position. Continued erosion and deposition cause them to migrate back and forth across a flat valley floor, as well as downstream, leaving scars and arcuate point bars to mark their former positions. At times, particularly during floods, a river may form a meander cutoff, a new, shorter channel across the narrow neck of a meander (figure 16.21). The old meander may be aban-

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doned as sediment separates it from the new, shorter channel. The cutoff meander becomes a crescent-shaped oxbow lake (figure 16.22). With time, an oxbow lake may fill with sediment and vegetation.

Flood Plains A flood plain is a broad strip of land built up by sedimentation on either side of a stream channel. During floods, flood plains may be covered with water carrying suspended silt and clay (figure 16.23). When the floodwaters recede, these finegrained sediments are left behind as a horizontal deposit on the flood plain.

Erosion Deposition

Erosion

Deposition

Point bars

Cut bank

Curve shifts outward and downstream

A

A

Erosion

B

B

Deposition

Cross section

Corkscrew water motion on a curve helps cause erosion and deposition

FIGURE 16.19 River erosion on the outside of a curve. Newaukum River, Washington. Pictures were taken in (A) January and (B) March 1965. Photos by P. A. Glancy, U.S. Geological Survey

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FIGURE 16.20 Development of river meanders and point bars by erosion and deposition on curves.

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CHAPTER 16

Streams and Floods Neck cutoff occurs

Meander neck becomes narrower

Oxbow lake

FIGURE 16.21 Creation of an oxbow lake by a meander neck cutoff. Old channel is separated from river by sediment deposition.

meander scar

Geologist’s View

flood plain

point bars

future meander cutoff oxbow lake

FIGURE 16.22 An oxbow lake marks the former position of a river meander, Blackfoot River near Vallet, Montana. Photo © James Steinberg/Photo Researchers

Some flood plains are constructed almost entirely of horizontal layers of fine-grained sediment, interrupted here and there by coarse-grained channel deposits (figure 16.24A). Other flood plains are dominated by meanders shifting back and forth over the valley floor and leaving sandy point bar deposits on the inside of curves. Such a river will deposit a characteristic fining-upward sequence of sediments: coarse channel deposits are gradually covered by medium-grained point bar deposits, which in turn are overlain by fine-grained flood deposits (figure 16.24B). As a flooding river spreads over a flood plain, it slows down. The velocity of the water is abruptly decreased by friction as the water leaves the deep channel and moves in a thin sheet over the flat valley floor. The sudden decrease in velocity of the water causes the river to deposit most of its sediment near the main channel, with progressively less sediment deposited away from the channel (figure 16.25). A series of floods may build up natural levees—low ridges of flooddeposited sediment that form on either side of a stream channel and thin away from the channel. The sediment near the river is coarsest, often sand and silt, while the finer clay is carried farther from the river into the flat, lowland area (the backswamp).

Flood deposits of silt and clay

Sand and gravel in channel

A Point bars of sand

Migration of meander

B

FIGURE 16.24 FIGURE 16.23 River flood plains. Flooded flood plain of the Animas River, Colorado. Photo by D. A. Rahm, courtesy of Rahm Memorial Collection, Western Washington University

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Flood plains. (A) Horizontal layers of fine-grained flood deposits with lenses of coarsegrained channel deposits. (B) A fining-upward sequence deposited by a migrating meander. Channel gravel is overlain by sandy point bars, which are overlain by finegrained flood deposits.

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Existing natural levees

Flood plain

A Coarse-grained sediment deposited along channel Natural levees in flood

B Built-up natural levees

Backswamp

C

FIGURE 16.25 Natural levee deposition during a flood. Levees are thickest and coarsest next to the river channel and build up from many floods, not just one. (Relief of levees is exaggerated.) (A) Normal flow. (B) Flood. (C) After flood.

Deltas Most streams ultimately flow into the sea or large lakes. A stream flowing into quiet water usually builds a delta, a body of sediment deposited at the mouth of a river when the river’s velocity decreases (figure 16.26).

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The surface of most deltas is marked by distributaries— small, shifting channels that carry water away from the main river channel and distribute it over the surface of the delta (figure 16.26). Sediment deposited at the end of a distributary tends to block the water flow, causing distributaries and their sites of sediment deposition to shift periodically. The shape of a marine delta in map view depends on the balance between sediment supply from the stream and the erosive power of waves and tides (figure 16.27). Some deltas, like that of the Nile River, are broadly triangular; this delta’s resemblance to the Greek letter delta () is the origin of the name. The Nile Delta is a wave-dominated delta that contains barrier islands along its oceanward side (figure 16.27A); the barrier islands form by waves actively reworking the deltaic sediments. Some deltas form along a coast that is dominated by strong tides, and the sediment is reshaped into tidal bars that are aligned parallel to a tidal current (figure 16.27B). The Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta in Bangladesh is a good example of a tide-dominated delta. Other deltas, including that of the Mississippi River, are created when very large amounts of sediment are carried into relatively quiet water. Partly because dredging has kept the major distributary channels (locally called “passes”) fixed in position for many decades, the Mississippi’s distributaries have built long fingers of sediment out into the sea. The resulting shape has been termed a birdfoot delta. Because of the dominance of stream sedimentation that forms the fingerlike distributaries, birdfoot deltas like the Mississippi’s are also referred to as stream-dominated deltas (figure 16.27C). Many deltas, particularly small ones in freshwater lakes, are built up from three types of deposits, shown in the diagram in figure 16.26. Foreset beds form the main body of the delta. They are deposited at an angle to the horizontal. This angle can be as great as 20° to 25° in a small delta where the foreset beds are sandy or less than 5° in large deltas with fine-grained sediment. On top of the foreset beds are the topset beds, nearly horizontal beds of varying grain size formed by distributaries shifting across the delta surface. Out in front of the foreset beds are the bottomset beds, deposits of the finest silt and clay carried out into the lake by the river water flow or by sediments sliding downhill on the lake floor. Many of the world’s great deltas in the ocean are far more complex than the simplified diagram shown in the figure. Shifting river mouths, wave energy, currents, and other factors produce many different internal structures. The persistence of large deltas as relatively “dry” land depends on a balance between the rate of sedimentation and the rates of tectonic subsidence and compaction of water-saturated sediment. Many deltas are sinking, with seawater encroaching on once-dry land. The Mississippi Delta in Louisiana is sinking, as upstream dams catch sediment, reducing the delta’s supply, and as extraction of oil and gas from beneath the delta accelerates subsidence (see box 16.2). The flat surface of a delta is a risky place to live or farm, particularly in regions threatened by the high waves and raised sea level of hurricanes, such as the U.S. Gulf Coast and the countries of Bangladesh (the GangesBrahmaputra Delta) and Burma (Irrawaddy Delta) on the Indian Ocean. The Irrawaddy Delta was struck by the Asian equivalent

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River

Distributaries Marshy delta surface Topset beds Foreset beds

Lake

Bottomset

beds

FIGURE 16.26 Internal construction of a small delta.

Mediterranean Sea

Distributaries Barrier Islands

A Wave-dominated delta Nile River (Egypt)

Kilometers 0 50

Bangladesh

C Stream-dominated delta

B Tidal-dominated delta d Ti al cu rre nt

Kilometers 0 15

Tidal sandbars

FIGURE 16.27 The shape of a delta depends on the amount of sediment being carried by the river and on the vigor of waves and tides in the sea. (A) The Nile Delta is a wave-dominated delta with prominent barrier islands. (B) Because of the rich silt deposited from the Ganges River in the delta flood plain, the area is heavily cultivated and home to nearly 120 million people. The delta and its inhabitants are at particular risk from catastrophic floods during the heavy rains during the monsoon season. (C ) Aster satellite photo of the Mississippi River delta taken in 2001. Note how sediment (shown in white) is carried by both river and ocean currents. Photo (A) by Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Science Team/NASA; photo (B) © M-Sat Ltd/Photo Researchers, Inc.; photo (C) by NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS, and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team

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E N V I R O N M E N TA L G E O L O G Y 1 6 . 2

Consequences of Controlling the Mississippi River and the Flooding of New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina

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ore than 1,800 people dead, 142,000 people displaced, $60 billion in property damage,homes destroyed, lives turned upside down, and a city under water (box figure 1). It was arguably the worst natural disaster in United States history. Hurricane Katrina made landfall at New Orleans on August 29, 2005, and the city was plunged under water and into chaos. Many people blamed the levees, for the fact that they were not high enough to hold back a 9-meter storm surge or for the fact that they were not strong enough to withstand the force of waves generated by a category 4 hurricane. Some people blamed the levees for a different reason, for the fact that they exist.

New Orleans and the Mighty Mississippi New Orleans was established in 1718 on a natural levee of the Mississippi River even though the founders knew it was not a good place to build a city. What little dry land existed was surrounded on all sides by acres of swamps, and it was vulnerable to floods from the Mississippi and hurricanes from the Gulf of Mexico. But New Orleans was the port that would control access to the interior of the United States, so it grew in spite of the problems.

From the beginning, the needs of the growing city were directly opposed to the needs of the delta upon which it was built. To maintain itself, the delta needed the Mississippi to continue to carry huge loads of sediments, divide into multiple distributaries to spread the sediments widely and build new land, flood its banks frequently to maintain the delicate balance between fresh water and saltwater that healthy marshes require, and have the ability to change its course when necessary to start a new lobe when the old one had extended too far. By contrast, New Orleans did not want the Mississippi River to change its course, overtop its banks and send water flooding into streets and buildings, or drop sand bars in its channel or block its mouth with mud. As a major shipping route, the Mississippi needed to be deep and swift and straight. In order to accommodate the needs of the growing port city, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers straightened the lower Mississippi by dredging cutoffs across the necks of meanders, shortening the river by 240 kilometers. The gradient of the river increased and its velocity as well; it stopped depositing sand bars and started scouring its bed instead, deepening its channel. The Corps built 1,600 kilometers of levees, confining the deeper, faster Mississippi River within its banks. Jetties were installed at the mouth of the river, concentrating the flow into the Gulf of Mexico like a fire hose. The tributaries to the Mississippi were dammed, regulating the flow of water and holding back sediments. The amount of sediment carried by the river dropped from 1.6 million tons per day in 1951 to 219,000 tons per day in 1988 and most of that sediment shot straight through the jetties and into the deep waters of the Gulf. The delta stopped growing and started to sink. Without new sediments to offset the compaction of old sediments and without fresh water to maintain the health of the marsh plants, the wetlands began to die and the land they occupied eroded away. The wetlands were further assaulted by more than 13,000 kilometers of canals, some dredged to assist in oil and gas exploration, others to facilitate shipping and navigation through the delta. Wave action from ship traffic widened the canals, sometimes doubling their width within five years. The influx of saltwater through the canals destroyed fragile marshland ecology. The wetlands that protected New Orleans from ocean waves and storm surges were gradually disappearing (box figure 2), but the river that flowed through the city was deep

BOX 16.2 ■ FIGURE 1 Flooded streets in downtown New Orleans from the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Photo by Nikki G. Bannister, Southern University and A&M College (2005)

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and navigable, and did not flood. By the 1950s, though, it became apparent to the Army Corps of Engineers that the river would not be flowing through the city much longer. The Atchafalaya River, a major distributary, had been slowly capturing more of the flow of the Mississippi River. The distance to the Gulf by way of the Atchafalaya was less than half that of the main channel of the Mississippi (box figure 2), and the gradient was much steeper. It was generally agreed that the next large flood could send the entire Mississippi River down the Atchafalaya leaving New Orleans stranded. To prevent this, a gated dam was built into the main levee of the Mississippi that allowed only a third of the water to flow to the Atchafalaya. A lock beside the structure lowered river vessels from the Mississippi to the Atchafalaya, sometimes up to 10 meters. Turbulence from high waters nearly undermined the structure, so yet another wide overflow channel was dug upstream and auxiliary structures were built to relieve the pressure at the gated dam.

1839

A City Vulnerable to Hurricanes The Army Corps of Engineers reengineered the Mississippi River and made New Orleans safer from the floods of the Mississippi and kept the river open for navigation. But in the process, New Orleans was now more vulnerable to the ravages of hurricanes. Controlling the Mississippi had starved the delta of sediments and caused the loss of 5,000 square kilometers of coastal wetlands. Coastal wetlands act as a sponge and are an important buffer to the full force of storm surges caused by hurricanes. New Orleans had lost this valuable protection, so the storm surge that approached from the Gulf of Mexico when Hurricane Katrina struck was higher than it would otherwise have been. This high storm surge was then amplified by the funnel effect as it roared out of Lake Borgne into two wide shipping channels, the Mississippi River–Gulf Outlet and the Intracoastal Waterway. These two channels converged on the much narrower Industrial Canal, forming a bottleneck that made the storm surge 20% higher and two to three times faster. Levees that might otherwise have been overtopped were instead breached, crumbled by the force of this hydrologic assault. What might have been a major flood was instead turned into an unprecedented disaster. Since Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans levees have been rebuilt and strengthened; freshwater diversions now allow water from the Mississippi River to flow into the surrounding wetlands; projects have been proposed to pump dredged river sediments into the wetlands to help counter the effects of erosion; and the Army Corps of Engineers has recommended the closure of the Mississippi River— Gulf Outlet. Of these measures, those already begun helped to protect New Orleans when Hurricane Gustav threatened the city in September 2008. One levee south of the city was overtopped, but none were breached. Projects like these that promote the health of the Mississippi River and its delta must be considered in the ongoing efforts to protect New Orleans.

1993

Mississippi Louisiana

2020

Additional Resources For an excellent animation of the series of events leading to the flooding of New Orleans by Hurricane Katrina’s storm surge, visit the Times Picayune website: • www.nola.com/katrina/graphics/flashflood.swf

John McPhee’s The Control of Nature contains a very readable account of the engineering of the Mississippi and its consequences.

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Gulf of Mexico

BOX 16.2 ■ FIGURE 2 Maps of historic and projected erosion of the Mississippi delta and wetlands. Images courtesy of Windell Curole and Joseph N. Suhayda, Ph.D.

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of Hurricane Katrina on May 2, 2008 when Hurricane Nargis grew to a category 4 hurricane in the northern Indian Ocean and made landfall. Thousands of people lost their lives and many were reported missing when the high waters from the storm surge struck the low-lying tidal delta. The damage and loss of life caused by flooding and erosion of the delta were catastrophic (see before and after images at: http://www.nasa.gov/ topics/earth/features/nargis_floods.html) making this one of the deadliest hurricanes to strike the northern Indian Ocean coast.

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deposit on an alluvial fan. The loss of velocity is due to the widening or branching of the channel as it leaves the narrow canyon. The gradual loss of water as it infiltrates into the fan also promotes sediment deposition. On large fans, deposits are graded in size within the fan, with the coarsest sediment dropped nearest the mountains and the finer material deposited progressively farther away. Small fans do not usually show such grading.

STREAM VALLEY DEVELOPMENT Alluvial Fans

Valleys, the most common landforms on the Earth’s surface, are usually cut by streams. By removing rock and sediment from the stream channel, a stream deepens, widens, and lengthens its own valley.

Some streams, particularly in dry climates, do not reach the sea or any other body of water. They build alluvial fans instead of deltas. An alluvial fan is a large, fan- or cone-shaped pile of sediment that usually forms where a stream’s velocity decreases as it emerges from a narrow mountain canyon onto a flat plain (figure 16.28). Alluvial fans are particularly well developed and exposed in the southwestern desert of the United States and in other desert regions, but they are by no means limited to arid regions. An alluvial fan builds up its characteristic fan shape gradually as streams shift back and forth across the fan surface and deposit sediment, usually in a braided pattern. Deposition on an alluvial fan in the desert is discontinuous because streams typically flow for only a short time after the infrequent rainstorms. When rain does come, the amount of sediment to be moved is often greater than the available water and material is moved as a debris flow before it comes to rest and is deposited. The sudden loss of velocity when a stream flows from narrow mountain canyons onto a broad plain causes the sediment to

Downcutting and Base Level The process of deepening a valley by erosion of the streambed is called downcutting. If a stream removes rock from its bed, it can cut a narrow slot canyon down through rock (figure 16.29A and B). Such narrow canyons do not commonly form because mass wasting and sheet erosion usually remove rock from the valley walls. These processes widen the valley from a narrow, vertical-walled canyon to a broader, open, V-shaped canyon (figure 16.29C and D). Slot canyons persist, however, in very resistant rock with favorably oriented fractures or in regions where downcutting is rapid. Downcutting cannot continue indefinitely because the headwaters of a stream cannot cut below the level of the streambed at

Narrow mountain canyon

Alluvial fan Braided stream

Plain

B

FIGURE 16.28 (A) An alluvial fan at the mouth of a desert canyon. (B) This alluvial fan formed on the saltencrusted floor of Death Valley, California, as sediment was washed out of the canyon by thunderstorms. Photo by Frank M. Hanna

A

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Slot canyon Removed by downcutting

Downcutting A

B

C

D

FIGURE 16.29 Downcutting, mass wasting, and sheet erosion shape canyons and valleys. (A) Downcutting can create slot canyons in resistant rock, particularly where downcutting is rapid during flash floods and fractures in the rock are favorably oriented. (B) Stream erosion has cut this unusual slot canyon through porous sandstone, Zion National Park, Utah. (C) Downslope movement of rock and soil on valley walls widens most canyons into V-shaped valleys. (D) The waterfall and rapids on the Yellowstone River in Wyoming indicate that the river is ungraded and actively downcutting. Note the V-shaped cross-profile and lack of flood plain due to the downslope movement of volcanic rock. Photo B by Allen Hagood, Zion Natural History Association; photo D by David McGeary

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www.mhhe.com/carlson9e Longitudinal profile of a stream

Stream

Sea level

Stream

Dam Reservoir

Sea level

Base level

429

Base level

Death Valley Base level

A

B

C

FIGURE 16.30 Base level is the lowest level of downcutting.

the mouth. If a river flows into the ocean, sea level becomes the lower limit of downcutting. The river cannot cut below sea level, or it would have to flow uphill to get to the sea. For most streams, sea level controls the level to which the land can be eroded. The limit of downcutting is known as base level; it is a theoretical limit for erosion of the Earth’s surface (figure 16.30A). Downcutting will proceed until the streambed reaches base level. If the stream is well above base level, downcutting can be quite rapid; but as the stream approaches base level, the rate of downcutting slows down. For streams that reach the ocean, base level is close to sea level, but since streams need at least a gentle gradient to flow, base level slopes gently upward in an inland direction. During the glacial fluctuations of the Pleistocene Epoch (see chapter 19), sea level rose and fell as water was removed from the sea to form the glaciers on the continents and returned to the sea when the glaciers melted. This means that base level rose and fell for streams flowing into the sea. As a result, the lower reaches of such rivers alternated between erosion (caused by low sea level) and deposition (caused by high sea level). Since the glaciers advanced and retreated several times, the cycle of erosion and deposition was repeated many times, resulting in a complex history of cutting and filling near the mouths of most old rivers. Base levels for streams that do not flow into the ocean are not related to sea level. In Death Valley in California (figure 16.30B), base level for in-flowing streams corresponds to the lowest point in the valley, 86 meters (282 feet) below sea level (the valley has been dropped below sea level by tectonic movement along faults). On the other hand, base level for a stream above a high reservoir or a mountain lake can be hundreds or even thousands of meters above sea level. The surface of the lake or reservoir serves as temporary base level for all the water upstream (figure 16.30C). The base level of a tributary stream is governed by the level of its junction with the main stream. A ledge of resistant rock may act as a temporary base level if a stream has difficulty eroding through it.

The Concept of a Graded Stream As a stream begins downcutting into the land, its longitudinal profile is usually irregular with rapids and waterfalls along its course (figure 16.31). Such a stream, termed ungraded, is using

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Waterfall

Ungraded profile on irregular land surface; waterfalls and rapids Rapids

Headwaters

Mouth Concave-upward graded profile

FIGURE 16.31 An ungraded stream has an irregular longitudinal profile with many waterfalls and rapids. A graded stream has smoothed out its longitudinal profile to a smooth, concaveupward curve.

most of its erosional energy in downcutting to smooth out these irregularities in gradient. As the stream smooths out its longitudinal profile to a characteristic concave-upward shape, it becomes graded. A graded stream is one that exhibits a delicate balance between its transporting capacity and the sediment load available to it. This balance is maintained by cutting and filling any irregularities in the smooth longitudinal profile of the stream. In this chapter’s section on Factors Affecting Stream Erosion and Deposition, you learned how changes in a stream’s gradient can cause changes in its sediment load. An increase in gradient causes an increase in a stream’s velocity, allowing the stream to erode and carry more sediment. A balance is maintained—the greater load is a result of the greater transporting capacity caused by the steeper gradient. The relationship also works in reverse—a change in sediment load can cause a change in gradient. For example, a decrease in sediment load may bring about erosion of the stream’s channel, thus lowering the gradient. Because dams trap sediment in the calm reservoirs behind them, most streams are almost completely sediment-free just downstream from dams. In some streams, this

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loss of sediment has caused severe channel erosion below a dam, as the stream adjusts to its new, reduced load. A river’s energy is used for two things—transporting sediment and overcoming resistance to flow. If the sediment load decreases, the river has more energy for other things. It may use this energy to erode more sediment, deepening its valley. Or it may change its channel shape or length, increasing resistance to flow, so that the excess energy is used to overcome friction. Or the river may increase the roughness of its channel, also increasing friction. The response of a river is not always predictable, and construction of a dam can sometimes have unexpected and perhaps harmful results.

Lateral Erosion A graded stream can be deepening its channel by downcutting while part of its energy is also widening the valley by lateral erosion, the erosion and undercutting of a stream’s banks and valley walls as the stream swings from side to side across its valley floor. The stream channel remains the same width as it moves across the flood plain, but the valley widens by erosion, particularly on the outside of curves and meanders where the stream impinges against the valley walls (figure 16.32). The valley widens as its walls are eroded by the stream and as its walls retreat by mass wasting triggered by stream undercutting. As a valley widens, the stream’s flood plain increases in width also.

A

Undercutting of valley wall

B

Widening flood plain

Headward Erosion Building a delta or alluvial fan at its mouth is one way a river can extend its length. A stream can also lengthen its valley by headward erosion, the slow uphill growth of a valley above its original source through gullying, mass wasting, and sheet erosion (figure 16.33). This type of erosion is particularly difficult to stop. When farmland is being lost to gullies that are eroding headward into fields and pastures, farmers must divert sheet flow and fill the gully heads with brush and other debris to stop, or at least retard, the loss of topsoil.

Stream Terraces Stream terraces are steplike landforms found above a stream and its flood plain (figure 16.34). Terraces may be benches cut in rock (sometimes sediment-covered), or they may be steps formed in sediment by deposition and subsequent erosion. Figure 16.35 shows how a terrace forms as a river cuts downward into a thick sequence of its own flood-plain deposits. Originally, the river deposited a thick section of flood-plain sediments. Then the river changed from deposition to erosion and cut into its old flood plain, parts of which remain as terraces above the river. Why might a river change from deposition to erosion? One reason might be regional uplift, raising a river that was

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C

FIGURE 16.32 Lateral erosion can widen a valley by undercutting and eroding valley walls.

once meandering near base level to an elevation well above base level. Uplift would steepen a river’s gradient, causing the river to speed up and begin erosion. But there are several other reasons a river might change from deposition to erosion. A change from a dry to a wet climate may increase discharge and cause a river to begin eroding. A drop in base level (such as lowering of sea level) can have the same effect. A situation like that shown in figure 16.35 can develop in a recently glaciated region. Thick valley fill such as glacial outwash (see chapter 19) may be deposited in a stream valley and later, after the glacier stops producing large amounts of sediment, be dissected into terraces by the river. Terraces can also develop from erosion of a bedrock valley floor. Bedrock benches are usually capped by a thin layer of flood-plain deposits.

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Flood plain

A

Terraces

FIGURE 16.33 Headward erosion is lengthening this stream channel. Note the dendritic drainage pattern that is developing in the headwaters of the streams, New Plymouth, New Zealand. Photo © G. R. “Dick” Roberts/Natural Sciences Image Library

B

Terraces

Terraces

New flood plain

C

FIGURE 16.35 Terraces formed by a stream cutting downward into its own flood-plain deposits. (A) Stream deposits thick, coarse, flood-plain deposits. (B) Stream erodes its flood plain by downcutting. Old flood-plain surface forms terraces. (C) Lateral erosion forms new flood plain below terraces.

FIGURE 16.34 Stream terraces near Jackson Hole, Wyoming. The stream has cut downward into its old flood plain. Photo by Diane Carlson

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Incised Meanders Incised meanders are meanders that retain their sinuous pattern as they cut vertically downward below the level at which they originally formed. The result is a meandering valley with essentially no flood plain, cut into the land as a steep-sided canyon (figure 16.36A). Some incised meanders may be due to the profound effects of a change in base level. They may originally have been formed as meanders in a laterally eroding river flowing over a flat flood plain, perhaps near base level. If regional uplift elevated the land high above base level, the river would begin downcutting and might be able to maintain its characteristic meander pattern while deepening its valley (figure 16.36B). A drop in base level without land uplift (possibly because of a lowering of sea level) could bring about the same result. Although uplift may be a key factor in the formation of many incised meanders, it may not be required to produce them. Lateral erosion certainly seems to become more prominent as a river approaches base level, but some meandering can occur as soon as a river develops a graded profile. A river flowing on a flat surface high above base level may develop meanders early in its erosional history, and these meanders may become incised by subsequent downcutting. In such a case, uplift is not necessary.

FLOODING Many of the world’s cities, such as Pittsburgh, St. Louis, and Florence, Italy, are built beside rivers and therefore can be threatened by floods. Rivers are important transportation routes for ships and barges, and flat flood plains have excellent agricultural soil and offer attractive building sites for houses and industry. Flooding does not occur every year on every river, but flooding is a natural process on all rivers; those who live in river cities and towns must be prepared. Heavy rains and the rapid melting of snow in the spring are the usual causes of floods. The rate and volume of rainfall and the geographic path of rainstorms often determine whether flooding will occur. Floods are described by recurrence interval, the average time between floods of a given size. A“100-year flood” is one that can occur, on the average, every 100 years (box 16.4). A 100-year flood has a 1-in-100, or 1%, chance of occurring in any given year. It is perfectly possible to have two 100-year floods in successive years—or even in the same year. If a 100-year flood occurs this year on the river you live beside, you should not assume that there will be a 99-year period of safety before the next one. Flood erosion is caused by the high velocity and large volume of water in a flood. Although relatively harmless on an uninhabited flood plain, flood erosion can be devastating to a city. As a river undercuts its banks, particularly on the outside of curves where water velocity is high, buildings, piers, and bridges may fall into the river. As sections of flood plain are washed away, highways and railroads are cut.

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A

Land surface at base level

Meandering river

Base level B

Land surface has been lifted above base level Incised meanders

Uplift

C

Base level

FIGURE 16.36 (A) Incised meanders of the Colorado River (“The Loop”), Canyonlands National Park, southwestern Utah. (B) Meandering river flowing over a flat plain cut to base level. (C) Regional uplift of land surface allows river to downcut and incise its meanders. Photo by Frank M. Hanna

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P L A N E TA R Y G E O L O G Y 1 6 . 3

Stream Features on the Planet Mars

T

here is probably no liquid water on the surface of Mars today. With the present surface temperatures, atmospheric pressures, and water content in the Martian atmosphere, any liquid water would immediately evaporate. Recent evidence collected from the Mars Orbiters and Landers indicate that conditions may have been different in the past and that liquid water once existed on Mars. Certain features on Mars, called channels, closely resemble certain types of stream channels on Earth. Martian channels have tributary systems (box figure 1) and meanders, trend downslope, and tend to get wider toward their mouths. Many Martian channels that were originally thought to have been carved by running water have since been reinterpreted. Some may have been formed by surface collapse caused by the melting of frozen water underground. Others, particularly gullies with steep slopes, could be the result of gravity flow of dry surface material. Some channels, however, have slopes too shallow for material to move by gravity alone and their braided stream channels indicate that they may have formed during periodic flooding events. Such flooding events could have been due to the sudden melting of ice in the Martian crust or polar ice caps during volcanic activity or impact events. Images recently returned from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter have provided exciting new evidence of flowing water on Mars early in the planet’s history. The Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM), a highly sophisticated imaging system carried aboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, has the ability to analyze the mineral composition of rocks on the surface of the planet. The CRISM image in box figure 2 shows the distributary channels of a delta in the impact crater Jezero and also the presence of clay minerals. The clay minerals in the crater and the delta indicate that the crater was probably once occupied by a lake slightly larger than California’s Lake Tahoe. The delta was fed by surface streams, which eroded upland rocks, and transported clays into the lake. Planetary geologists continue to interpret the surface features on Mars and distinguish between those created by flowing water and those created by other processes. Continual advances in technology, such as the images provided by CRISM and the analyses returned by the Mars Rovers, are adding exciting new information about wet environments on Mars that may have supported life.

BOX 16.3 ■ FIGURE 1 Stream drainage system from the Southern Highlands of Mars, which resembles dendritic systems found on Earth. Photo by NASA from Mars Digital Image Map. Image processing by Brian Fessler, Lunar and Planetary Institute

Additional Resources For more information on the possibility of water on Mars, visit the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies research site: www.giss.nasa.gov/research/briefs/gornitz_07/

Information about the Mars Global Surveyor can be found at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/NASA site: http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mgs/

Information about the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, including images from the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM), may be found at: http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/mro/

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BOX 16.3 ■ FIGURE 2 A color-enhanced image from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter showing a delta in the Jezero Crater. Clay minerals are shown in green. Photo by NASA/JPL/JHUAPL/MSSS/ Brown University

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High water covers streets and agricultural fields, and invades buildings, shorting out electrical lines and backing up sewers. Water-supply systems may fail or be contaminated. Water in your living room will be drawn upward in your walls by capillary action in wall plasterboard and insulation, creating a soggy mess that has to be torn out and replaced. High water on flat flood plains often drains away very slowly; street travel may be by boat for weeks. If floodwaters are deep enough, houses may float away. Flood deposits are usually silt and clay. A new layer of wet mud on a flood plain in an agricultural region can be beneficial in that it renews the fields with topsoil from upstream, as used to be the case with the Nile River until the Aswan Dam was built. The same mud in a city will destroy lawns, furniture, and machinery. Cleanup is slow; imagine shoveling 4 inches of worm-filled mud that smells like sewage out of your house.

Urban Flooding Urbanization contributes to severe flooding. Paved areas and storm sewers increase the amount and rate of surface runoff of water. This is due to their inhibiting infiltration of rainwater into the ground and their rapid delivery of the resulting increased runoff to the channels, making river levels higher during storms (figure 16.37). Such rapid increases in runoff or discharge to a river are called a “flashy” discharge. Storm sewers are usually designed for a 100-year storm; however, large storms that drop a lot of rain in a short period of time (cloudburst) may overwhelm sewer systems and cause localized flooding. Rising river levels may block storm sewer outlets and add to localized flooding problems. Bridges, docks, and buildings built on flood plains can also constrict the flow of floodwaters, increasing the water height and velocity and promoting erosion.

Flash Floods

River discharge

Some floods occur rapidly and die out just as quickly. Flash floods are local, sudden floods of large volume and short duration, often triggered by heavy thunderstorms. A startling

Duration of rainfall

Increased runoff due to urbanization Normal runoff

Time

FIGURE 16.37 The presence of a city can increase the chance of floods. The blue curve shows the normal increase in a river’s discharge following a rainstorm (black bar). The red curve shows the great increase in runoff rate and amount caused by pavement and storm sewers in a city.

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example occurred in 1976 in north-central Colorado along the Big Thompson River (figure 16.38). Strong winds from the east pushed moist air up the front of the Colorado Rockies, causing thunderstorms in the steep mountains. The storms were unusually stationary, allowing as much as 30 centimeters (12 inches) of rain to fall in two days. Some areas received 19 centimeters in just over an hour. Little of this torrential rainfall could soak into the ground. The volume of water in the Big Thompson River swelled to four times the previously recorded maximum, and the river’s velocity rose to an impressive 25 kilometers per hour for a few hours on the night of July 31. By the next morning, the flood was over, and the appalling toll became apparent—139 people dead, 5 missing, and more than $35 million in damages (figure 16.38B). On July 29, 1997, just two days before the twenty-first anniversary of the Big Thompson River flood, Fort Collins, Colorado, was struck by a flash flood when 20 centimeters of rain fell in only five hours. A 4-meter-high wall of water rushed down Spring Creek, a tributary to the Cache la Poudre River, nearly devastating two trailer parks. Five people lost their lives and forty were injured when a 5-meter-high railroad embankment that had temporarily dammed Spring Creek broke and sent the wall of water into the trailer park (figure 16.38C). Unlike the Big Thompson Canyon flood, the heavy rains fell over the city of Fort Collins rather than upstream in the steep mountain canyons.

Controlling Floods Flood-control structures can partially reduce the dangers of floodwaters and sedimentation to river cities (figure 16.39). Upstream dams can trap water and release it slowly after the storm. (A dam also catches sediment, which eventually fills its reservoir and ends its life as a flood-control structure.) Artificial levees are embankments built along the banks of a river channel to contain floodwaters within the channel. Protective walls of stone (riprap) or concrete are often constructed along river banks, particularly on the outside of curves, to slow erosion. Floodwalls, walls of concrete, may be used to protect cities from flooding; however, these flood-control structures may constrict the channel and cause water to flow faster with more erosive power downstream. Bypasses are also used along the Mississippi and other rivers to reduce the discharge in the main channel by diverting water through gates or weirs into designated basins in the flood plain. The bypasses serve to give part of the natural flood plain back to the river. Dams and levees are designed to control certain specified floods. If the flood-control structures on your river were designed for 75-year floods, then a much larger 100-year flood will likely overtop these structures and may destroy your home. The disastrous floods along the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers and their tributaries north of Cairo, Illinois, in 1993 resulted from many such failures in flood control. Wise land-use planning and zoning for flood plains should go hand in hand with flood control. Wherever possible, buildings should be kept out of areas that might someday be flooded by 100-year floods.

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MO UN

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S IN TA

Areas of heaviest rain

Po

la

C ache

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ud

re

R iv er k e e r C Fort Collins g in Spr 10 miles 10 kilometers

Big

T

n pso hom

River

FIGURE 16.38 Loveland

Mouth of Big Thompson Canyon

(A) Location map of the 1976 flash flood on the Big Thompson River in Colorado and the 1997 flash flood in Fort Collins. (B) A cabin sits crushed against a bridge following the Big Thompson Canyon flash flood of 1976. (C) Devastation along Spring Creek after the 1997 Fort Collins flash flood. Photos by W. R. Hansen, U.S. Geological Survey

Mountain front

B

C

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CHAPTER 16

Streams and Floods

I N G R E AT E R D E P T H 1 6 . 4

Estimating the Size and Frequency of Floods

B

ecause people have encroached on the flood plains of many rivers, flooding is one of the most universally experienced geologic hazards. To minimize flood damage and loss of life, it is useful to know the potential size of large floods and how often they might occur. This is often a difficult task because of the lack of long-term records for most rivers. The U.S. Geological Survey monitors the stage (water elevation) and discharge of rivers and streams throughout the United States to collect data that can be used to attempt to predict the size and frequency of flooding and to make estimates of water supply. Hydrologists designate floods based on their recurrence interval, or return period. For example, a 100-year flood is the largest flood expected to occur within a period of 100 years. This does not mean that a 100-year flood occurs once every century but that there is a 1-in-100 chance, or a 1% probability, each year that a flood of this size will occur. Usually, flood control systems are built to accommodate a 100-year flood because that is the minimum margin of safety required by the federal government if an individual wants to obtain flood insurance subsidized by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). To calculate the recurrence interval of flooding for a river, the annual peak discharges (largest discharge of the year) are collected and ranked according to size (box figure 1 and table 1). The largest annual peak discharge is assigned a rank (m) of 1, the second a 2, and so on until all of the discharges are assigned a rank number. The recurrence interval (R) of each annual peak discharge is then calculated by adding 1 to the number of years of record (n) and dividing by its rank (m). Rⴝ

Annual Peak Discharges and Recurrence Intervals in Rank Order for the Cosumnes River at Michigan Bar, California Year

Peak Discharge (cfs)

Magnitude Rank (m)

1997

93,000

1

100

1907

71,000

2

50

1986

45,100

3

33.33

1956

42,000

4

25.0

1963

39,400

5

20.0

1958

29,300

10

10.0

1928

22,900

20

5.0

1914

18,200

30

3.33

1918

11,900

40

2.50

1910

9,640

50

2.0

1934

7,170

60

1.67

100,000

Recurrence Interval

Source: Data from Richard Hunrichs, hydrologist, U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Geological Survey Water-Data Report, CA-97-3, and Updated Flood Frequency Analysis, 2006

expected frequency of occurrence, for a discharge this large is 50 years:

nⴙ1 m

Rⴝ

For example, the Cosumnes River in California has 99 years of record (n ⴝ 99), and in 1907, the second-largest peak discharge (m ⴝ 2) of 71,000 cfs occurred. The recurrence interval (R), or

Peak discharge (cubic feet per second)

BOX 16.4 ■ TABLE 1

99 ⴙ 1 ⴝ 50 2

That is, there is a 1-in-50, or 2%, chance each year of a peak discharge of 71,000 cfs or greater occurring on the Cosumnes River.

Cosumnes River at Michigan Bar, CA

50,000

0 1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950 Year

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

BOX 16.4 ■ FIGURE 1 Annual peak discharge for the Cosumnes River. After U.S. Geological Survey Water-Data Report, CA-97-3 and California Hydrologic Data Reports

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Peak discharge (cubic feet per second)

140,000 120,000

Frequency curve–analysis through 1996 Frequency curve–analysis through 2006

100,000

Observed peaks–analysis through 2006 99 years of record (1907–2006) 1907 Pre–1997 100-year flood (73,000 cfs)

80,000

Post–1997 100-year flood (93,000 cfs)

60,000 40,000

1997

100-year flood

20,000

150-year flood

0 1

2

3 4 5

10 20 30 40 50 Recurrence interval (years)

100 150 200

500

BOX 16.4 ■ FIGURE 2

BOX 16.4 ■ FIGURE 3

Levee break along the Cosumnes River. Courtesy of Robert A. Eplett, Governor’s Office of Emergency Services

Flood-frequency curves for the Cosumnes River. Data from Richard Hunrichs, hydrologist, U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Geological Survey Water-Data Report, CA-97-3

The flood of record (largest recorded discharge) occurred on January 2, 1997, when heavy, unseasonably warm rains rapidly melted snow in the Sierra Nevada and caused flooding in much of northern California. A peak discharge of 93,000 cfs in the Cosumnes River resulted in levee breaks and widespread flooding of homes and agricultural areas (box figure 2). The recurrence interval for the 1997 flood (93,000 cfs) is 100 years: Rⴝ

99 ⴙ 1 ⴝ 100 years 1

A flood-frequency curve can be useful in providing an estimate of the discharge and the frequency of floods. The flood-frequency curve is generated by plotting the annual peak discharges against the calculated recurrence intervals (box figure 3). Because most of the data points defining the curve plot in the lower range of discharge and recurrence interval, there is some uncertainty in projecting larger flood events. Two flood-frequency curves are drawn in box figure 3; the red line represents the best-fit curve for all of the data, whereas the dashed blue line excludes the 1997 flood of record. Notice that the curve has a steeper slope when the 1997 data is included and that the size of the 100-year flood has increased from 73,000 cfs to 93,000 cfs based on the one additional year of record. Because large floods do not occur as often as small floods, the rare large flood can have a dramatic effect on the shape of the

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flood-frequency curve and the estimate of a 100-year event. This is particularly true for a river like the Cosumnes that has had only two large events, one in 1907 and the other 90 years later in 1997. The 100-year flood plain is based on the estimate of the discharge of the 100-year flood and on careful mapping of the flood plain. Changes in the estimated size of the 100-year flood could result in property that no longer has 100-year flood protection. In this case, property owners may be prevented from getting flood insurance or money to rebuild from FEMA unless new flood-control structures are built to provide additional protection or houses are raised or even relocated out of the flood plain.

Additional Resources Water Resources Data for California, Water Year 1997. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Data Report CA-97-3. H. C. Riggs. 1968. Frequency curves. Techniques of WaterResources Investigations of the U.S. Geological Survey. Book 4, Hydrologic Analysis and Interpretation. To find data sets to calculate the recurrence interval for rivers throughout the United States, access the U.S. Geological Survey Water Data Retrieval website: •

http://water.usgs.gov/usa/nwis/

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CHAPTER 16

Streams and Floods

Levee

Dam

pa By

Floodwall

ss

Weir

Reservoir

FIGURE 16.39 Examples of flood-control structures.

The Midwest Floods of 1993 and 2008 In the spring of 1993, heavy rains soaked the ground in the upper midwestern United States. In June and July, a stationary weather pattern created a shifting band of thunderstorms that dumped as much as 10 centimeters (4 inches) of rain in a single day on localities such as Bismarck, North Dakota; Cedar Rapids, Iowa; and Manhattan, Kansas (figure 16.40). These torrential rains falling on already saturated ground created the worst flood disaster in U.S. history (known as the Great Flood of 1993), as swollen rivers flooded 6.6 million acres in nine states, killing thirty-eight people and causing $12 billion in damage to houses and crops. River discharges exceeded 100-year discharges on many rivers including the Mississippi, Missouri, Iowa, Platte, and Raccoon. At St. Louis, the Mississippi River discharge was greater than 1 million cfs on August 1 (six times normal flow), and the river crested 20 feet above flood stage (and 23 feet above flood stage farther downstream at Chester, Illinois). At Hannibal, Missouri, where the 500-year flood height had been determined to be 30 feet, the new, 31-feethigh flood-control levee was completed in April. The river crested at 32 feet. Some rivers remained above flood stage for months.

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The high water in major rivers such as the Mississippi and Missouri caused many smaller tributary streams to back up, flooding numerous small towns. Many levees broke as water overtopped them or just physically pushed the saturated levee sediment aside (figure 16.40D). After the rains stopped, in some places the floodwaters took weeks or even months to recede. Some entire towns have been relocated to drier ground. Fifteen years later, in the spring of 2008, conditions virtually identical to those that caused the Great Flood of 1993 were occurring again in the Midwest. In Iowa, the first six months of 2008 were the wettest ever recorded. The spring was cooler than usual, suppressing evaporation and preventing the saturated soils from drying out. The unprecedented amount of rain received in the 15 days between May 29 and June 12, nearly four times the normal amount, had no where to go but into the streams and rivers. In Cedar Rapids, Iowa, the Cedar River crested at nearly 33 feet on June 13, 19 feet above flood level and 12 feet higher than the previous record (see opening photo in chapter and figure 16.41). Throughout the Midwest, 24 people were killed by the floods and an estimated 38,000 people were displaced. The damages were expected to be less than those caused by the Great Flood of 1993, in large part because many communities were moved from low-lying, flood-prone areas following that devastation.

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95°

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439

90°

MINNESOTA B

Bismarck WISCONSIN

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NEBRASKA 40°

Hannibal Manhattan

ILLINOIS

St. Louis

KANSAS

Chester

MISSOURI

OKLAHOMA 0 0

200 200

400 Miles

400 Kilometers

A

FIGURE 16.40 The Great Flood of 1993. (A) Area of flood. (B) Mississippi River water pours through a broken levee onto a farm near Columbia, Illinois, 1993. Data from U.S. Geological Survey. Photo © St. Louis Post-Dispatch

FIGURE 16.41 A railroad bridge weighed down with 20 hopper cars collapsed in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, on June 12, 2008, collecting buildings, cars, and other debris washed down by the flooding Cedar River. Photo © AP Photo/Jeff Roberson

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CHAPTER 16

Streams and Floods

Summary Normally, stream channels are erod